CC BY
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3. Закон Украши "Про правовий режим територи, що зазнала радюактивного забруднення внаслщок Чорнобильсько'1 катастрофи" // Збipник нормативних мaтеpiaлiв з питань сoдiaльнoгo захисту громадян, якi постраждали внaслiдoк Чорнобильсько'1 катастрофи. - К. : Вид-во '^бра", 1992. - Вип. 1. - С. 8-23.
4. Краснов В.П. Рекомендаци з ведения люового господарства в умовах paдioaктивнoгo забруднення / В.П. Краснов, О.О. Орлов, В.П. Ландш, В.О. Бузун та ш. - К. : Вид-во "Либщь", 2008. - 82 с.
Ландин В.П. Радиоактивное загрязнение продукции лесного хозяйства в условиях Украинского Полесья
Территория Украинского Полесья находится в зоне влияния аварийных выбросов ЧАЭС, а климатические и ландшафтно-геохимические особенности региона обуславливают на Полесье интенсивную миграцию радионуклидов 137Cs и 90Sr в системе почва-растение и по пищевым цепочкам к человеку. В связи с этим, загрязненные радионуклидами лесные экосистемы остаются источником загрязненной лесной продукции и по своему воздействию на формирование доз облучения населения относятся к критическим экосистем. Одним из направлений предотвращения негативного влияния радиоактивного загрязнения лесных экосистем на население является обеспечение радиационного контроля продукции лесохозяйственных предприятий загрязненной зоны. Результаты радиационного контроля лесной продукции свидетельствуют о постепенном снижении радиоактивного загрязнения древесины, которое происходит благодаря физическому распаду и снижению миграционной способности радионуклидов вследствие закрепления их в почвенном поглощающем комплексе.
Ключевые слова: лесные экосистемы, радиоактивное загрязнение, миграция радионуклидов, лесная продукция, радиационный контроль.
Landin V.P. Radioactive contamination of the products in the Ukrainian forest ecosystems Polessye
Ukrainian territory Polessye located in the zone of Chernobyl accident reduction and climate and landscape-geochemical features of the region to determine Polessye intensive migration of radionuclides 137Cs and 90Sr in the soil-plant and the food chain to humans. In this regard contaminated forest ecosystems remains a dangerous source of forest products and their influence on the formation of radiation doses to the public are critical ecosystems. One of the areas to prevent adverse effects of radioactive contamination of forest ecosystems in the population is to provide radiation monitoring production forestry enterprises contaminated area. The results of radiation monitoring forest products show a gradual decrease contamination of wood, which occurs due to physical decay i reduce the migration ability of radionuclides due to assignment of them into the soil absorption complex.
Keywords: forest ecosystem contamination, migration of radionuclides, forest products, radiation control.
UDC 630*182 Adjunct M. Wrobel1, dr. hab.; mgr inz K. NachowicZ;
adjunct U. Bashutska2, dr.
FLORISTIC DIVERSITY OF MUNICIPAL WASTES HEAPS ON THE RECLAIMED LANDFILLS NEAR SZCZECIN (WESTERN POMERANIA, POLAND)
This paper presents the results of research documenting the floristic diversity of unevenly aged municipal waste dumps prior subjected technical and biological reclamation. Field observations were carried out in 2009-2011 on research plots located at the base, on the slope and on the top of the annual, 5-years old and 15-years old waste dumps.
1 West Pomeranian University of Technology, Szczecin, Poland;
2 Ukrainian National Forestry University, Lviv, Ukraine
2. Екологя довкшля
43
In the assessment of the floristic diversity the Shannon-Wiener's (H) and species evenness (J) indexes were used as well as the degree of advancement of flora synanthropisation process was rated. Also the share of species representing different life forms by Raunkiaer's was characterized, their historical and geographical origin and light requirements. Participations of salinity and heavy metals tolerant species were evaluated. It was also found that the age of waste landfills influenced on the taxonomic diversity of flora, increased the number of hemicryptophytes and improved the number of plants which tolerated moderate light, salinity and the presence of heavy metals in the soil. With age of the waste dumps, the number of the-rophytes was decreasing. Analysis of species diversity based on the values of Shannon-Wiener's diversity index (H), species evenness index (J) as well as the number of species did not show statistically significant differences between flora diversity of research plots situated at the base, on the slope and on the top of the oldest (15-years old) and the youngest (1-year old) waste dumps. Such differences were found between the research plots situated on the 5-years old waste dump.
Keywords: floristic diversity, biological reclamation, waste dumps, synanthropic flora, Shannon-Wiener's diversity index
Introduction. Municipal landfills pose a serious threat to the environment. Wastes deposited in the landfills are subjected to segregation and composting. Technical and biological reclamation of municipal landfills contributes to improving the condition of these degraded habitats and their integration with the surrounding landscape. In the process of bio-remediation are used selected pioneering organisms. These include, among other plant species colonizing spontaneously heap dumps, because over time create a permanent plant cover that inhibits the processes of surface runoff and erosion. It also retains rainwater, initiates soil-forming processes and enables the development of other organisms. Biological reclamation includes a range of treatments such as: protecting slopes against landslides of vegetation cover, the soil fertilization with organic matter, regulation of water conditions, the introduction of plantings pioneer species which initiate soil-forming processes and the development of soil microflora (Siuta 2001, Karczewska 2008).
For this purpose, the studies were undertaken to identify the species composition and structure of plant cover growing spontaneously on unevenly aged waste dumps. The results of these studies allow in the future precise selection of herbaceous species, trees and shrubs which will be used in biological reclamation of similar objects.
Materials and methods. Research was carried out on three technically and biologically reclaimed landfills near Szczecin, in villages Sierakowo and Lesno Gorne (West Pomeranian Province, north-western Poland). Reclamation was completed at different time: a year ago (the first waste dump), 5-years ago (the second one) and 15-years ago (the third surveyed waste dump). Heaps were formed from segregated and compacted wastes which were placed on the floor isolated by geomembrane that protects the soil from contamination. The leachate was accumulated in the ditch around the landfill whereas inside the heaps drainage systems removing biogas were installed (Niedzwiecki et al. 2008). For each of the waste dump three research plots were selected (1, 2, 3), each of size 100 m2, located at the base (P), on the slope (S) and on the hilltop of the waste heap (W). For all research plots were prepared separate lists indicating the percentage participation of plant species.
Terminology of the Latin names of plant species is given after Mirek et al. (2002) and Rothmaler (2004). The informations about of life forms by Raunkiaer's and historical and geographical origin of plant species were given by Rutkowski
(1998) whereas their light requirements and tolerance to salinity and presence of heavy metals in soil were given by Zarzycki et al. (2003). The following biodiversity indices were applied:
• Shannon-Wiener's species diversity index (H)
S
H ="Z (pi log2 pr), i=1
where: S - total number of species in a sample; pr - participation of the i-th species in a sample.
Pr = n/N,
where: nt -number of all individuals in the i-th species in a sample; N - total number of all individuals in a sample.
• species (Pielou's species) evenness index (J)
J = -*-,
H max
where: Hmax - maximum value of species evenness equal to log2 S.
• the species richness measured as a total number of species
Statistical calculations were made using the MVSP (Multivariate Statistical Package) and Statistica 8.0 packages (Piernik 2008). For the comparison of mean values of indices one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used. Homogeneous groups were formed on the base of multiple range of the Tukey's test. All statistical hypotheses were verified at a significance level of 0.05.
As a measure of anthropogenic transformation of flora the indicator of synanthropisation process according to Jackowiak (1990) was used:
WSc = Ap+A 100%, Sp + A
where: Ap - apophytes; A - antropophytes; Sp - non synanthropic spontaneophytes.
Results. As a result of field research conducted at three unevenly aged municipal waste landfills was recorded a total of 164 plant species belonging to 39 families. Flora of the oldest landfill (15-years old) includesd 45 % of all species whereas the 5-years old one included 87 % of all species and the 1-year old one only 13 %. Most of these species belonged to families: Asteraceae (20 % of total flora), Poaceae (18 %) and Brassicaceae (8 %).
Analysis of geographical and historical origin of species found in examined landfills pointed to apophytes - native plant species occurring at anthropogenic habitats as the most numerous group of species (54 % of total flora) eg. Chenopodium album, Polygonum aviculare or Plantago major. Among the taxa of foreign origin the numerous were archaeophytes which constituted 23 % of studied flora, eg. Capsella bursa-pastoris, Lactuca serriola and Viola arvensis. Among kenophytes (17 % of total flora) were noted such species, like: Solidago serotina, Conyza canadensis, Galin-soga ciliata and Impatiens parviflora.
Analysis of the biological spectrum of flora of studied objects showed the dominance of therophytes (48 % of total flora) in plant species composition of the youngest waste dump (1-year old). Among them were observed Sisymbrium officinale,
Trifolium arvense and Hordeum murinum. In the floristic composition of older waste dumps (the 5 and 15-years old ones) predominated hemicryptophytes - respectively 40 % and 34 %, eg. Saponaria officinalis and Taraxacum officinale.
Habitat conditions prevailing in the landfills allow the occurrence of termop-hilous and heliophilous species. Almost half of all species of the surveyed landfills consisted taxa preferring the full light (48 % of total flora) and the moderate light (42 %) (Zarzycki et al. 2003) eg. Polygonum persicaria, Spergula arvensis, Arctium lappa, Helianthus annuus, Galinsogaparviflora and Linaria vulgaris.
Among the species recorded on the examined landfills about 19 % of them tolerated the presence of NaCl in the soil substratum. The group of halophytes represented Puccinellia distans, Arrhenatherum elatius, Lepidium ruderalne, Cichorium intybus and the most often they were observed on the youngest 1 -year old waste dump.
Analysis of landfills flora of older reclaimed waste dumps (5-years and 15-ye-ars old ones) showed the presence of species tolerant heavy metals in the soil substratum (metallophytes). Such species like Calamagrostis epigejos and Atriplex patula consisted respectively 9 % and 10 % of all plant species observed on these waste dumps. On the youngest 1 -year old waste dump, there were no metallophytes.
Table 1. Values of the Shannon-Wiener's diversity index (H), species evenness index (J)
and number of species for the 1-year old waste dump
Research plot Shannon-Wiener's index (H) mean Species evenness index (J) mean Number of species mean
P1 3,358 - 0,937 - 12 -
P2 3,314 3,391 0,958 0,947 11 12,0
P3 3,503 - 0,947 - 13 -
S1 3,635 - 0,955 - 14 -
S2 3,421 3,398 0,954 0,951 12 12,0
S3 3,140 - 0,945 - 10 -
W1 3,642 - 0,957 - 14 -
W2 3,371 3,474 0,94 0,949 12 12,6
W3 3,410 - 0,951 - 12 -
Comparison the significance of differences between mean values of the Shannon-Wiener's diversity index (H), the species evenness index (J) and the number of species for the analyzed research plots set out on the 1-year old waste dump with initial vegetation cover using one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) at p < 0.05, showed no significant statistical differences. Both at the base of the waste dump (P), on the slope (S) and the hilltop (W), there was a very similar species composition and the equal quantitative participation of individual taxa. Predominated species of annual segetal weeds like: Stellaria media, Thlaspi arvense, Matricaria maritima ssp. inodora or Capsella bursa-pastoris. Equally frequently were observed species of annual and biennial ruderal weeds like: Conyza canadensis, Urtica urens, Chenopodium rub-rum or Chenopodium hybridum.
The results of comparison the significance of differences between analysed diversity indexes for the 5-years old waste dump indicate statistically significant differences between the mean value of Shannon-Wiener's diversity index (H) and the average number of species for research plots located at the base of the heap (P), on the slope (S) and the hilltop (W) of the 5-years old waste dump. Landfill leachate ac-
cumulation at the base of the waste dump (P) increased the humidity of habitat and contributed to the development of nitrophilous plants like: Ballota nigra, Dactylis glomerata, Chelidonium majus, Hordeum murinum, Galium aparine, Sambucus nigra and Urtica dioica. On the slope (S) and the hilltop of the waste dump (W) soil moisture was low, which significantly reduced the number of species and decreased the species diversity. Among termophilous and Heliophilous species were observed: Sisymbrium loeselii, Bromus inermis, Diplotaxis tenuifolia, Lactua serriola and Ta-nacetum vulgare. However, the species evenness index (J) for the research plots on the top of the waste dump (W) differed significantly with respect to the base (P) and the slope (S). There were no significant differences between the research plots on the slope (S) and on the hilltop (W) of the waste dump.
Table 2. Values of the Shannon-Wiener's diversity index (H), species evenness index (J) and number of species for the 5-years old waste dump
Research plot Shannon-Wiener's index (H) mean Species evenness index (J) mean Number of species mean
P1 3,927 - 0,961 - 17 -
P2 3,931 3,98 0,962 0,961 17 17,6
P3 4,082 - 0,961 - 19 -
S1 3,285 - 0,949 - 11 -
S2 3,650 3,441 0,959 0,951 14 12,3
S3 3,390 - 0,946 - 12 -
W1 2,816 - 0,939 - 8 -
W2 2,967 2,944 0,936 0,931 9 9,0
W3 3,050 - 0,918 - 10 -
Table 3. Values of the Shannon-Wiener's diversity index (H), species evenness index (J) and number of species for the 15-years old waste dump
Research plot
Shannon-Wiener's index (H)
Species evenness index (J)
Number of species
P1
4,183
0,968
20
P2
3,855
4,024
0,964
0,966
16
18,0
P3
4,035
0,968
18
S1
3,559
0,962
13
S2
3,321
3,406
0,96
0,951
11
12,0
S3
3,340
0,932
12
W1
4,078
0,96
19
W2
3,497
3,515
0,945
0,947
13
13,6
W3
2,972
0,938
9
Comparison the significance of differences between mean values of Shannon-Wiener's index (H), the species evenness index (J) and the number of species for the analyzed research plots set out on the oldest 15-years old waste dump with permanent vegetation cover using one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) at p < 0.05, showed no significant statistical differences.
At the base and on the slope of the waste dump have developed multispecies shrub communities built by Robinia pseudoacacia, Sambucus nigra, Acer negundo and Fraxinus excelsior. On the top of the dump dominated perennial weeds of ruderal
species like Artemisia vulgaris, Tanacetum vulgare and Bromus inermis as well as segetal ones eg. Elymus repens, Convolvulus arvensis and Cirsium arvense.
The degree of advancement of flora synanthropisation process was also evaluated. For the each unevenly aged waste dump the coefficient of total synanthropisation was calculated. The highest rate was recorded for sysnanthropic flora of the youngest 1-year old waste dump (Wsc =100 %), for older dumps (5-years old and 15-years old) values of this coefficient were slightly lower and amounted respectively 96,4 % and 95,2 %.
Discussion. The results of the comparative analysis of taxonomic unevenly aged waste dumps showed the dominance of species from Asteraceae family (20 % of the total flora) and Poaceae family (18 % of the total flora) in the flora of all surveyed objects. Similar observations concerning the dominance of these taxa recorded Str^czynska and Str^czynski (2004) and Wolski (2007) during the observation of vegetation cover which developed on the ash and flotation tailings waste dumps.
The results of the analysis of historical and geographical origin of studied flora showed that over 50 % of all recorded species represented apophytes - native species occurring at anthropogenic habitats. Apophytes occurred the most frequently in the oldest waste dump where the reclamation was made 15 years ago. Since then there has developed stable vegetation dominated by native plant species. The least native species recorded in the youngest 1 year old waste dump. According to the floristic studies carried out on mining dumps by Bzd^ga et al. (2004) the ratio of native species (apophytes) to foreign ones (metaphytes) was on average 5:1. A similar proportion was reported in the area of investigations. Comparable results were reported by Klim-ko et al. (2004), where apophytes observed on the mine dumps accounted 79 % of the total flora of studied objects.
Analysis of the spectrum of biological life forms pointed to the dominance of annual and biennial species in the flora of the youngest waste dump with initial pioneer vegetation. With age, on older landfills in the structure of vegetation cover was observed less therophytes because hemicryptophytes and geophytes were the most numerous group of species. Similar observations were reported by Klimko et al. (2004) on the old mine dumps with stable habitat conditions, where there was three times more hemicryptophytes than therophytes.
In the area of investigations 19 % of all recorded species tolerated the presence of NaCl in the soil substratum. Halophytes were observed in ditches where landfill leachate accumulated at the base of younger dumps (1-year old and 5-years old). Selection of species for biological reclamation of such objects should take into account the salinity tolerant and resist to physiological drought taxa (Niewiadomski and Toloczko 2005, Szymanska-Pulikowska 2005). According to Wrochna (2004) the most resistant species are species from Chenopodiaceae and Amaranthaceae families, among others Atriplex hortensis and Amaranthus tricolor. Some species recommended for use in the biological reclamation appeared spontaneously on the surveyed waste dumps (Str^czynska and Str^czynski 2004).
Metallophytes formed only 9 % of the observed flora, what indicates the correct selection of hazardous waste. Some plant species present the ability to accumulation of toxic compounds from the contaminated soil. Such ability is called the phyto-
remediation and is an important part of biological reclamation (Pulford et al. 2002). Species which appeared spontaneously on the oldest reclaimed waste dumps, like Sambucus nigra, Betula pendula, Alnus glutinosa, A. incana, Trifolium sp., Lupinus sp. and Vicia sp. some authors propose the use in biological reclamation of degraded lands (Pachuta et al. 2003).
The confirmation of these observations are the results of analysis of Shannon-Wiener's diversity index (H) and species evenness (J) indexes for vegetation cover of surveyed waste dumps which show the highest species diversity of the oldest, 15-ye-ars old waste dump. Greater floristic and socio-ecological diversity of vegetation cover observed on multiannual landfills, in comparison to the initials objects, noted Pi-otrowski et al. (2006). He also pointed the necessity of identification the direction of spontaneous succession of vegetation on the degraded areas as an important part of biological reclamation. Conclusions:
1. Flora at the surveyed municipal waste landfills was synanthropic and the highest value of synanthropisation coefficient was recorded for the flora of the youngest waste dump (1-year old) with initial vegetation cover.
2. The highest species diversity was observed for the oldest waste dump (15-years old) with permanent vegetation cover.
3. In the species composition of plant cover observed on the youngest waste dump dominated annual and biennial terophytes, while the plant cover of the oldest waste dump distinguished predomination of hemicryptophytes and geophytes.
4. Apophytes - native plant species occurring at anthropogenic habitats, were the most numerous group of species which predominated in floristic composition of all surveyed unevenly aged waste dumps.
5. A small participations of halophytes and metallophytes in the species composition of flora surveyed waste dumps pointed to the proper segregation of deposited wastes and low soil contaminations by heavy metals and chlorides.
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Врубель М., Haxoei4 К., Башуцька У. Флористичне pi3HOMaHrrra мкь-ких вгдва.нв BiAxoAiB на вщтворених землях бшя Щец1ма (Захвдна Помера-нш, Польща)
Наведено результати дослiджень i3 документацп флористичного рiзноманiття pi3-новiкових мюьких вiдвалiв вiдходiв перед здшсненням техшчно! й бюлопчно! рекуль-тивацп. Польовi дослiдження виконано протягом 2009-2011 рр. на пробних площадках у шдшжж^ на схилi та плато одш^чного, 5-рiчного й 15-рiчного вiдвалiв.
Визначення бiологiчного рiзноманiття за допомогою шдексш Шенона-Вшера (H) та видово! рiвномiрностi (J) дало змогу встановити штенсившсть процесш синантрош-зацп. Також охарактеризовано види рiзних життевих форм за Раунгаером, !х iсторичне й географiчне походження, потребу в освiтленнi. Визначено толерантш види, здатнi зростати в умовах засолення й присутностi важких металiв. Встановлено вплив вiку вщвшпв на видове рiзноманiття флори, збшьшення кiлькостi гемiкриптофiтiв, покра-щення кщькост рослин, здатних швелювати надмiрне осв^лення, засолення rрунтiв, присутнiсть в них важких металш, покращуючи лiсорослиннi умови. 1з збiльшенням вь ку вщвшпв кiлькiсть терофiтiв зменшувалася. Аналiз видового рiзноманiття базувався на оцiнках за индексами Шенона-Вшера (H), видово! рiвномiрностi (J), а також за кшь-кiстю видiв при недостатнiх значеннях для достовiрноl оцiнки рiзницi бюлопчного рiз-номанiття на пробних площадках, розташованих у пiднiжжi, на схилi та плато найстар-шого (15^чного) та наймолодшого (однорiчного) вiдвалiв вiдходiв. Таку рiзницю було встановлено мiж пробними площадками, розташованими на 5^чному вiдвалi.
Ключовi слова: флористичне рiзноманiття, бiологiчна рекультивацш, вiдвали вщ-ходiв, синантропна флора, iндекс рiзноманiття Шенона-Вшера.
Врубель М, Нахович К., Башуцка У. Флористическое разнообразие коммунальных отвалов на восстановленных землях возле Щецина (Запад-мая Померания, Польша)
Приведены результаты исследований по документации флористического разнообразия разновозрастных коммунальных отвалов отходов перед проведением технической и биологической рекультивации. Полевые исследования проводились в 2009-
50
Збiрник науково-техшчних праць
2011 гг. на пробных площадках в подножье, на склоне и на верхнем плато однолетнего, 5-летнего и 15-летнего отвалов.
Определение биологического разнообразия с помощью индексов Шенона-Винера (Н) и видовой равномерности (7) позволило установить интенсивность процессов си-нантропизации. Также дана характеристика разных жизненных форм за Раункиером, их историческое и географическое происхождение, необходимость света. Выявлены толерантные виды, которые могут расти в условиях засоления и присутствия тяжелых металлов. Установлено влияние возраста отвалов на видовое разнообразие флоры, увеличение числа гемикриптофитов, а также количества растений, способных нивелировать избыточное осветление, засоление почв, присутствие в них тяжелых металлов, улучшая лесорастительные условия. Из увеличением возраста отвалов количество терофитов уменьшалось. Анализ видового разнообразия основывался на оценках по индексам Ше-нона-Винера (Н), видовой равномерности (7), а также по количеству видов при недостаточных значениях достоверной оценки разницы биологического разнообразия на пробных площадках, размещенных в подножье, на склоне и плато самого старого (15-летнего) и самого молодого (однолетнего) отвалов отходов. Такая разница установлена между пробными площадками, размещенными на 5-летнем отвале.
Ключевые слова: флористическое разнообразие, биологическая рекультивация, отвалы отходов, синантропная флора, индекс разнообразия Шенона-Винера.
УДК 581.[144.2+524+55] Ст. наук. ствроб. О.1. Величко,
канд. бюл. наук - Львiвський НУ ím. 1вана Франка
ВПЛИВ БАКТЕРИЗАЦН НАС1ННЯ АКТИВНИМИ ШТАМАМИ PHIZOBIUMLEGUMINOSARUM BV. TRIFOLII НА НОДУЛЯЦ1ЙНУ ЗДАТШСТЬ РОСЛИН КОНЮШИНИ ЛУЧНО1 У НАФТОЗАБРУДНЕНОМУ ГРУНТ1
Дослщжено доцшьшсть шокуляцп насшня конюшини активними штамами Rh. le-guminosarum bv. trifolii з метою формування бобово-ризобiальних симбюз1в у нафтозаб-рудненому грунта Встановлено, що забруднення грунту нафтою пригшчувало нодуля-цшну здатшсть рослин конюшини, а бактеризация насшня сприяла формуванню коре-невих бульбочок у забрудненому грунта Ефективнiсть формування симбiотичного партнерства у нафтозабрудненому грунт залежить вiд рiвня забруднення грунту та вико-ристаного штаму бульбочково! бактери.
Ключовi слова: нафтозабруднений грунт, симбюз, Trifolium pratense L.
Забруднення природного середовища внаслiдок антропогенно!' дыльнос-tí е однieю з ключових проблем сьогодення. Пошук адекватних методов ощнки еколого-токсикологiчного стану та способiв вщновлення техногенно трансфор-мованого середовища е невдаладним завданням сучасно! прикладно! науки. За-лежно вiд виду забруднення до середовища потрапляють рiзноманiтнi токсичш речовини. 1х реципiентами е атмосфера, водойми, пiдземнi води, грунти. Забруднення грунпв можливе, зокрема, унаслвдок розробки нафтогазових родо-вищ, перероблення видобуто! сировини, а також - транспортування отриманих продуктiв. У р^ потрапляння нафти та нафтопродуктав до грунтового покриву, кр1м нагромадження у ньому токсичних елементiв, виникае його стшка пдро-фобiзацiя, засоленiсть та анаеровашсть. Адаптацiя вищих рослин до екстре-мальних умов нафтозабрудненого грунту е властивктю видоспецифiчною. З да-них лiтератури вiдомо, що для бшьшосп рослин пригнiчення процесу пророс-тання насiння i росту проростюв розпочинаеться, коли кiлькiсть нафтових вуг-
