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23АРХИТЕКТУРА
FEATURES OF THE HISTORICAL CONTEXT OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF ARCHITECTURE IN CENTRAL ASIA OF THE XIV-XV CENTURIES
Alliyar N^.1, Samoilov K.I.2
'Alliyar Nurbek Bekaidarovich — post graduate Student, DIRECTION: ARCHITECTURE;
2Samoilov Konstantin Ivanovich — Doctor of Sciences (Architecture), Professor, ARCHITECTURE DEPARTMENT, SATBAYEV UNIVERSITY, ALMATY, REPUBLIC OF KAZAKHSTAN
Abstract: the period of the XIV-XV centuries is indicative of the evolution of medieval Central Asia. During this period, the main methods of shaping were formed, which determined the further development of the region's architecture.
Keywords: medieval architecture of Central Asia, mausoleum, palaces, fortress, architectural and artistic solutions.
In Central Asia, there was a cultural, economic and spiritual community between the countries and peoples that inhabited this unique geographical environment - a huge region of the Asian continent. Historical periods of Central Asia in a broad sense were formed by the socio-economic base, the formation and development of which was largely corrected and modified by the ethno-cultural tradition and natural and climatic features of its constituent countries. Social and political movements also had a significant impact on this issue, particularly the superiority of this or any other socio-political order.
Modern experience of studying the architecture of Central Asia shows that it is carried out in two planes: differentiated according to individual countries and as an integrated process against the background of the history of world architecture. The historical research that exists in many countries of Central Asia is considered to be the basic material, but also a source for a systematic understanding of the early medieval architecture of palaces, since the differentiated consideration of them within one country is characterized by empirical narrowness and limitations. The whole, built-in also alternate research and awareness gives you a panoramic picture in which you can clearly see the internal territorial similarities and differences, as well as the external facets of the cultural relationship between the Palace architecture of Central Asia and the Middle East.
The middle of the Tenth century wasmarked by the formation of the Karakhanid State on the territory of East Turkestan, Semirechye, southern Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and part of Uzbekistan, where Islam was declared the state religion. Wars with the Seljuks in the second half of the XI century and with the Khitans in the early XII century led to the decline of the Karakhanid state, which, gradually disintegrating lasted until the Mongol invasion. Conquered in 1219-1221, Kazakhstan was part of the Golden Horde, and after its collapse in the White Horde and Mogolistan. After the collapse in the late XlV-early XV centuries. The main regions of Kazakhstan were included in the Nogai Horde and the Uzbek khanate. In southern Kazakhstan, during this period, the number of settlement types decreased to two: a fortified city (a craft and trade or administrative and political center) and rural agricultural settlements. The formation of the Kazakh khanate in the XV century marked a new stage of development. Divided into three zhuzs: Senior (Semirechye), Middle (Central Kazakhstan) and Junior (Western Kazakhstan) - state education United almost all ethnic groups that made up the Kazakh nation [1].
The main feature of the formation of the architecture of Central Asia is that Central Asia throughout its history up to the beginning of the XX century was the scene of a struggle between two methods of life -sedentary urban and nomadic society. Architecture, no less, developed in a single direction, although it had local characteristics [9].
It remains to add that in the seventies of the XIV century in Central Asia for the first time there is a patchwork carved picture in a silicate base. The monument that saved it is considered to be the Mazar Sufi in Urgench (called Tyurabek-Khanym) [10].
The socio-political fragmentation of Central Asia did not prevent the creation of a common culture. The architecture of the early middle ages is characterized by a single or native construction methods, similar methods of planning and construction of buildings, similar compositional configurations. This era, in addition to the countless ruins of fortified castles, preserved a large number of ruins of Palace buildings.
As S.Khmelnitsky objectively notes, «If the decline of Western antiquity in its Roman form led to the fall of the Western Roman Empire and, ultimately, the death of an entire ancient culture, which was replaced by the culture of the Christian middle ages, then in the East the situation was different. Here, the transition to the
middle ages was not accompanied, as if, by total socio-political catastrophes, but in the sphere of art it did not lead to a break in customs , to a coarsening and certain savagery of the artistic obroz, as it happened in the West. The traditions of the local late-antique art culture of Central Asia continued to exist also in the new era, only with time, changing in content and form immeasurably for contemporaries» [2, P. 9].
The study of early feudal Palace architecture in Central Asia revealed their tradition and continuity, which allowed us to preserve and develop the best achievements on a new basis. The continuity of ancient customs can be seen in the interpretation of the interiors of structures, where the harsh image of blank planes of raw walls, enlivened by rare openings of ventilation ducts, a frequent metric row of teeth on top of the walls, etc. remains characteristic [5, P. 110].
The sustainability yard-aivan system is a striking embodiment of the idea that the plan was implemented as a result of the contrasting combination of the Iwan, under the arch of which sat the ruler, and a yard filled with his subordinates. The yard-ayvannoy concept with spaces and rooms, as if strung on a longitudinal axis, assumes movement in one direction and can be called linear.
The centric planning idea was captured in the rooms and their compositions, grouped around a single center and suggesting an approach to this center from all edges. The center of the composition was intended to be a square building in the project, expanded by four axial archways or niches, and received, for this reason, a cross-shaped configuration. This device existed, of course, directly related to the development of domed ceilings: it was possible to increase the total area of the dome hall only with the help of axial niches. The origin of this method of planning can be combined with the shape of open courtyards, on the axes of which rectangular aivans are located - for example, The kalaly-Gyr Palace in Khorezm [6, P. 15] or the Parthian palaces in Kuh-Khoja and Ashur [7, P. 10]. The Edges of such courtyards can be represented as an enlarged similarity of the walls of a centric hall with niches in the middle [2, P. 294].
A square building with axial niches, which would later become a universal archetype in the architecture of Central Asia, appeared in the IV century in Iran (palaces in Bishapur, Sarvistan, Damgan). This architectural form was developed in Sasanian Iran [8, P.175-180]. Subsequently, a domed room with four arched niches or openings on the axes will become a popular and long-lasting image of architecture - and not only in Central Asia, but throughout the Middle and Middle East and India, the main component of centric, equi-facade and other spatial structures.
The main representative premises of the Palace were reception halls of rectangular or square shape, the wide space of which was covered with wooden pillars, which, with significant volumes of the hall, were based on four columns. Reception halls certainly had elevations - "sufas", which were located around the perimeter of the walls, but also a throne platform-" stage", where the sovereign sat. The Palace throne rooms were particularly extensive: in the Palace of Panjikent-about 250 square meters, in Bunjikat (Shahristan) - 230 square meters. The entrances to the reception halls were almost always located in the middle of the wall opposite the throne area, unlike the usual rooms.
One of the most characteristic forms of medieval architecture in Central Asia (but later in almost the entire Islamic society) was the peshtak-a Grand portal entrance in the form of a large entrance niche with paired protruding pylons, overlapping them with a vault and crowning the facade wall, standing on the vault and defining the overall rectangular shape of the peshtak. The architectural divisions, proportions, and decoration of these portals were very different, but the overall shape was preserved strictly.
The genetic prototype of peshtak, according To S. Khmelnitsky, was a vaulted aiwan of Sasanian architecture, which closed the courtyard-aiwan complexes of palaces (ensembles of Bishapur, Sarvistan, Ctesiphon). Peshtak as a stable plastic image, or even as an architectural sign-a symbol used regardless of the purpose of the building - was formed in the early middle Ages. On the contrary, the columned reception hall with sufs on the walls - almost an integral feature of castles of the pre-Islamic period-later almost completely disappeared from construction. Together with the Sufis, the transverse screen walls that separated them from the entrances-a typical, clearly marking criterion of pre - Islamic architecture-also went back to the distant past. At the end of the XIV-XV centuries, the walls of many existing settlements in Central Asia -Samarkand, Shakhrisabz, Karshi, and probably Bukhara-are renewed, but sometimes rebuilt again [10].
This historical and architectural context determined the appearance of a number of outstanding structures, one of which was the Honako-mausoleum of Ahmed Yassavi in the Turkestan. Which had a significant impact on the further evolution of architecture in Kazakhstan.
References
1. Samoilov K.I. Architecture of Kazakhstan of the XX century (development of architectural and artistic
forms). 2004. 930 p.
2. Khmelnitsky S. Between the Kushans and the Arabs of the V-VIII centuries, 2000. 294 p.
3. Halpachhyan O.H. Architecture of the Ancient world // General history of architecture in 12vs. Tom 1. Moscow: Stroyizdat, 1970. 512 p.
4. Voronina V.L. Architecture of Iran (III century BC-VII century ad) // General history of architecture in 2 vs., Tom 1, 1958. 686 p.
5. Voronina V.L. Architecture of Arab countries // General history of architecture in 12 vs. P. 15-109.
6. Stavisky B.Ya. Art of the Central Asia. Ancient period from VI century BC-VIII century A.D., 1974. 256p.
7. Malcolm College - The Parthians // Followers of the prophet Zarathustra, 2004. 190 p.
8. Voronina V.L. Architecture of medieval Iran // General history of architecture in 12 vs., 1970. P. 144-182.
9. Almaganbetova K.A. Architecture of Central Asia of the early medieval period. [Electronic Resource]. URL: https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/arhitektura-tsentralnoy-azii-rannego-srednevekovogo-perioda/ (date of access: 24.11.2020).
10. Art of the Central Asia XIII - XV ages - Pat 2 beginning. [Electronic Resource]. URL: http://art-blog.uz/archives/3179/ (date of access: 24.11.2020).
ОСНОВНЫЕ ТЕНДЕНЦИИ В РАЗВИТИИ БАЗОВЫХ ФОРМ ХРИСТИАНСКОГО ЗОДЧЕСТВА Ульченко Н.В.1, Самойлов К.И.2
'Ульченко Наталья Владимировна — магистрант;
2Самойлов Константин Иванович — доктор архитектуры, профессор, кафедра архитектуры, Казахский национальный исследовательский технический университет им. К.И. Сатпаева, г. Алматы, Республика Казахстан
Аннотация: описывается процесс изменения приемов планировочных решений храмов в зависимости от периода и местности.
Ключевые слова: архитектура храмов, христианские храмы, католические храмы, православные храмы, протестантские храмы, каноны храмового зодчества.
УДК 726.5
Имеющее несколько основных направлений интерпретации вероучения, христианство в каждом из них своеобразно трактовало пространство для богослужения. Распространяясь в регионах как с моноэтническим, так и с полиэтническим населением, архитектура храмов находилась в прямом соотношении с имеющими различную степень стабильности факторами природно-климатических и инженерно-геологических условий той или иной части территории, наличия местных или доставляемых строительных материалов, уровня развития производительных сил, особенностями хозяйственной деятельности, бытового уклада и мировоззрения местных жителей, имеющих различный срок проживания в данной местности, а также административно-территориального деления возникавших и распадавшихся государственных образований [1; 2].
Первые христианские храмы, после начала реализации политики веротерпимости в отношении этой религии, появились на Ближнем Востоке, в основном имея планировку античной базилики. Ранее такие здания являлись общественными местами, имели форму вытянутого прямоугольника с рядом колоннад.
На первых этапах распространения, христианство не сооружали оригинальных зданий для богослужения. Поэтому при строительстве культовых сооружений использовались давно привычные архитектурные и художественные формы. Позднее стало необходимым представить место для богослужения наполненным христианским содержанием. Так появилась христианская базилика. Она появилась благодаря мифическим символам религии. В своей строгой форме базилика уже отвечала требованию христианства, символизируя «гору», место богооткровения. Так же аскетичный образ советовал пониманию христианства. Базилика стала олицетворять корабль Града Божья. В процессе христианизации базилики появилась отличительная черта планировочного решения любого храма -апсида в восточной часть церкви. Апсида стала иметь форму полукруга или трёхгранника. В этой апсиде так же появился еще одна важная часть храма - алтарь, символизирующий пещеру. Само планировочное решение стало вытянутым и символизирует путь к престолу [3].
Для христианства необходимо было отразить в храме важное значение Троицы. Поэтому христианская базилика делится на три части: нартекс - пристройка перед входом в храм (притвор); «церковь» - центральная часть храма; алтарь - отделен от «церкви» алтарной преградой. В продольном размере выделялось три или реже пять нефов.
