CC BY
0FEATURES OF GEOLOGICAL HISTORY Yulchiboev Khusan Mirzokhidjon ugli
University of Geological Sciences Institute of Geology and exploration of oil and gas fields,
geologist
https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.10720924
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Abstract. The first geological knowledge was obtained in dynamic geology - this is information about earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, erosion of mountains, and movement of coastlines. Similar statements are found in the works of such scientists as Pythagoras, Aristotle, Pliny the Elder, Strabo. The study of the physical materials (minerals) of the Earth dates back at least to ancient Greece, when Theophrastus (372-28 7 BC) wrote Peri Lithon (On Stones). During the Roman period, Pliny the Elder described in detail many minerals and metals and their practical uses, and also correctly identified the origin of amber. Descriptions of minerals and attempts to classify geological bodies are found in Al- Biruni and Ibn Sina (Avicenna) in the 10th-11th centuries. Al- Biruni's works contained an early description of the geology of India, he suggested that the Indian subcontinent was once a sea. Avicenna offered a detailed explanation of the formation of mountains, the origin of earthquakes and other topics that are central to modern geology, and which provides the necessary foundation for the further development of science. Some modern scholars, such as Fielding H. Garrison, believe that modern geology began in the medieval Islamic world.
Keyword: minerals and metals, sedimentary rocks, soil erosion, religious concept, broad context covering the atmosphere, biosphere and hydrosphere
Annotatsiya. Birinchi geologik bilimlar dinamik geologiyada olingan - bu zilzilalar , vulqon otilishi, tog'larning eroziyasi va qirg'oqlarning harakati haqidagi ma'lumotlar . Shunga o'xshash fikrlar Pifagor, Aristotle , Katta Pliniy, Strabon kabi olimlarning asarlarida uchraydi.
Yerning fizik materiallarini (minerallarini) o'rganish hech bo'lmaganda qadimgi Yunonistonda, Teofrast ( miloddan avvalgi 372-28 7) Peri Liton ( Toshlar haqida ) asarini yozgan paytdan boshlanadi . Rim davrida Pliniy Elder ko'plab minerallar va metallarni va ulardan amaliy foydalanishni batafsil tasvirlab bergan, shuningdek, amberningkelib chiqishini to'g'ri aniqlagan . Foydali qazilmalarning tavsifi va geologikjismlarni tasniflashga urinishlar 10—11-asrlarda Al-Beruniy va Ibn Sino ( Avitsenna ) asarlarida uchraydi . Al- Beruniy asarlarida Hinduston geologiyasiningdastlabki tavsifi mavjudbo'lib, uHindistonyarimoroliBirpaytlar dengiz bo'lgan , deb taxmin qilgan . Avitsenna tog'larningpaydo bo'lishi, zilzilalarning kelib chiqishi va boshqa zamonaviy geologiyada markaziy o'rinni egallagan va fanning keyingi rivojlanishi uchun zarur asos bo'ladigan boshqa mavzularni batafsil tushuntirishni taklif qildi. FieldingX. Garrison ba'zi zamonaviy olimlar zamonaviy geology o'rta asrlarda islom olamida boshlangan deb hisoblaydilar
Kalit so'z: minerallar va metallar, cho'kindi jinslar, tuproq eroziyasi, diniy tushuncha, atmosferani qamrab oluvchi keng kontekst, biosfera va gidrosfera.
Introduction
In 540 BC, Xenophanes described fossil fish and shells found in sediments in the mountains. Similar fossils were noted by Herodotus (circa 490 BC).
Some of the first geological thoughts concerned the origin of the Earth. Ancient Greece developed some basic geological concepts of the origin of the Earth. Additionally, in the 4th century BC, Aristotle made critical observations about the slow rate of geological change. He observed the composition of the land and formulated the theory that the Earth was changing slowly and that these changes could not be observed during the lifetime of one person. Aristotle developed one of the first scientifically based concepts related to the geological realm regarding the rate of physical change on the Earth.
However, it was his successor at the Lyceum, the philosopher Theophrastus, who achieved the greatest success in antiquity with his work On Stones. He described a variety of minerals and ores both from local mines, such as those at Lauria near Athens, and further afield. He also quite naturally discussed types of marble and building materials such as limestone, and attempted a primitive classification of the properties of minerals according to their properties such as hardness.
Much later, during the Roman period, Pliny the Elder had a very extensive discussion of many other minerals and metals that were then widely used for practical purposes. He was one of the first to correctly identify the origin of amber as fossilized tree resin by observing insects trapped in some of its pieces. He also laid the foundations of crystallography by recognizing the octahedral shape of diamond.
Abu al-Rayhan al-Biruni (973-1048 CE) was one of the first Muslim geologists, whose work included the earliest works on the geology of India, hypothesizing that the Indian subcontinent was once a sea.
Ibn Sina (Avicenna, 981-1037 CE), Persian polymath, made significant contributions to geology and natural sciences (which he called Attabiyat ), along with other natural philosophers such as Ikhwan Al- Safa and many others. Ibn Sina wrote an encyclopedic work called Kitab ash-Shifa " (Book of Treatment, Healing or Removal from Ignorance), in which Part 2, Section 5 contains his commentary on Aristotle's Mineralogy and Meteorology in six chapters: "Formation". mountains, Advantages of mountains in cloud formation; Water sources; Origin of earthquakes; Formation of minerals; Diversity of the Earth's topography.
Literature and methodology
In medieval China, one of the most prominent naturalists was Shen Guo (1031-1095), polymath who dabbled in many fields of study in his time. Geologically Shen Guo is one of the first naturalists to formulate the theory of geomorphology. This was based on his observations of sediment uplift, soil erosion, silt deposition, and marine fossils found in the Taihang Mountains , located hundreds of miles from the Pacific Ocean. He also formulated the theory of gradual climate change after observing ancient fossilized bamboo found in a preserved underground state near Yanzhou (modern Yan'an ), in the dry northern climate of Shaanxi Province. He formulated a hypothesis about the process of land formation: based on observations of fossil shells in a geological layer of a mountain hundreds of miles from the ocean, he concluded that the land was formed as a result of mountain erosion and the deposition of silt.
Portrait of Whiston with a diagram demonstrating his theories of cometary catastrophes, best described in A New Theory of the Earth.
It was only in the 17th century that geology made great strides in its development. At this time, geology became an independent subject in the world of natural science. The Christian world has discovered that different Bible translations contain different versions of the biblical text. The one thing that remained constant in all interpretations was that the Flood shaped the world's geology and geography. [failed to verify] To prove the authenticity of the Bible, people felt the need to demonstrate through scientific evidence that the Great Flood actually occurred. With this increased desire for data came an increase in observations of the Earth's composition, which in turn led to the discovery of fossils. Although theories resulting from increased interest in the composition of the Earth were often manipulated to support the concept of the Flood, the true result was an increased interest in the structure of the Earth. Due to the strength of Christian beliefs in the 17th century, the most widely accepted theory of the origin of the Earth was the New Theory of the Earth, published in 1696 by William Whiston .
Whiston used Christian reasoning to "prove" that the Great Flood occurred and that it shaped the Earth's rock strata.
results
In the 17th century, both religious and scientific speculation about the origins of the Earth further increased interest in the Earth and led to more systematic methods for identifying the Earth's layers. The layers of the Earth can be defined as horizontal layers of rocks that have approximately the same composition. An important pioneer in science was Nicholas Steno . Steno was trained in classical scientific texts; however, by 1659 he was seriously questioning accepted knowledge about the natural world. Importantly, he questioned the idea that fossils grew in the earth, as well as conventional explanations for rock formation. His research and subsequent conclusions on these topics have led scholars to consider him one of the founders of modern stratigraphy and geology ( Stheno , who became a Catholic as an adult, eventually became a bishop and was beatified). in 1988 by Pope John Paul II, which is why he is also called Blessed Nicholas Steno ).
Scotsman James Hutton is considered the father of modern geology.
As a result of increased interest in the nature of the Earth and its origins, there has been increased attention to minerals and other components of the Earth's crust . Moreover, the growing economic importance of the mining industry in Europe in the mid-to-late 18th century made it vital to have accurate knowledge of ores and their natural distribution. [14] Scientists began to systematically study the composition of the Earth, making detailed comparisons and descriptions not only of the earth itself, but also of the semi-precious metals it contained, which were of great
commercial value. For example, in 1774 Abraham Gottlob Werner published Von den ausserlichen Kennzeichen der Fossilien ("On the External Characteristics of Fossils"), which brought him widespread recognition as he introduced a detailed system for identifying specific minerals based on external characteristics. The more productive mining lands could be identified and semiprecious metals found, the more money could be made. This desire for economic gain brought attention to geology and made it a popular topic of study. With more people studying it, more detailed observations and more information about the Earth have emerged.
Also in the eighteenth century, aspects of Earth's history, namely the discrepancies between accepted religious concepts and factual data, again became a popular topic of discussion in society. In 1749, the French naturalist Georges-Louis Leclerc , Comte de Buffon, published his Natural History, which criticized the popular biblical accounts given by Whiston and other ecclesiastical theorists of earth history. Through experiments with cooling balls, he discovered that the age of the Earth was not only 4000 or 5500 years, as the Bible suggests, but also 75,000 years. Another person who described the history of the Earth without reference to either God or the Bible was the philosopher Immanuel Kant, who published his General Natural History and Theory of the Heavens ( Allgemeine ) in 1755 Naturgeschichte und Theorie des Himmels ). Judging by the work of these respected men, as well as others, by the mid-eighteenth century it had become acceptable to question the age of the Earth. This interrogation was a turning point in the study of the Earth. It has now become possible to study the history of the Earth from a scientific point of view, without religious prejudice.
With the application of scientific methods to the study of the history of the Earth, the study of geology could become a separate field of science. To begin with, it was necessary to develop terminology and a definition of what constitutes a geological survey. The term "geology" was first used technically in the publications of two Genevan naturalists, Jean-André Deluc and Horace-Benedict de Saussure, although "geology" was not well accepted as a term until it was picked up by the highly influential collection, the Encyclopedia. published since 1751 by Denis Diderot. After the term was established to refer to the study of the Earth and its history, geology gradually became more generally accepted as a distinct science that could be taught as a field of study in educational institutions. In 1741, the most famous institution in natural history, the National Museum of Natural History in France, created the first teaching position specifically dedicated to geology. This was an important step in further advancing knowledge of geology as a science and in recognizing the value of widespread dissemination of such knowledge.
Discussion
By the 1770s, chemistry began to play a key role in the theoretical foundation of geology, and two opposing theories emerged with devoted followers. These contrasting theories offered different explanations for how the rock layers on the Earth's surface formed. One of them suggested that a liquid flood, perhaps similar to the biblical flood, created all the geological strata. This theory extended chemical theories that had been developing since the seventeenth century and were promoted by the Scotsman John Walker, the Swede Johan Gottschalk Vallerius and the German Abraham Werner. Of these names, Werner's views became influential internationally around 1800. He argued that the layers of the Earth, including basalt and granite, formed as sediment from an ocean that covered the entire Earth. Werner's system was influential, and those who accepted his theory were known as Diluvianists or Neptunists . The Neptunian thesis was most popular at the end of the eighteenth century, especially among those with a chemical background. However, from the 1780s, another thesis gradually began to gain popularity. Some
mid-eighteenth-century naturalists, such as Buffon, suggested that instead of water, the strata were formed by heat (or fire). The dissertation was modified and expanded by Scottish naturalist James Hutton in the 1780s. He opposed the theory of Neptunism, proposing instead a theory based on heat. Those who followed this thesis in the early nineteenth century called this view plutonism: the formation of the Earth by the gradual solidification of a molten mass at a slow rate through the same processes that have occurred throughout history and continue today. This led him to the conclusion that the Earth was immeasurably old and could not be explained within the chronology derived from the Bible. Plutonists believed that the main factor in the formation of rocks was volcanic processes, and not the water of the Great Flood.
Bust of William Smith in the Natural History Museum, Oxford University.
In the early 19th century, mining and the Industrial Revolution stimulated the rapid development of the stratigraphic column—"a sequence of rock formations arranged according to the order of their formation in time." In England, mining surveyor William Smith, beginning in the 1790s, empirically discovered that fossils were a highly effective means of distinguishing between otherwise similar features in the landscape as he traveled the country working on canal systems and produced the first geological maps of Britain. Around the same time, the French comparative anatomist Georges Cuvier, assisted by his colleague Alexandre Brongniart of the Paris School of Mines, realized that the relative ages of fossils could be determined from a geological point of view; in terms of which rock layers the fossils are located in and the distance of those rock layers from the surface of the earth. Combining their discoveries, Brongniard and Cuvier realized that different layers could be identified by their fossil content, and thus each layer could be assigned a unique position in the sequence. Following the publication of Cuvier and Brongniart's Description of the Geological Surroundings of Paris in 1811, which outlined this concept, stratigraphy became very popular among geologists; many hoped to apply this concept to all rocks on Earth. During this century, various geologists further refined and completed the stratigraphic column. For example, in 1833, when Adam Sedgwick was mapping rocks he found to be Cambrian, Charles Lyell elsewhere proposed a Tertiary subdivision; while Roderick Murchison , mapping Wales from a different direction, assigned the upper parts of Sedgwick's Cambrian to the lower parts of his Silurian period. The stratigraphic column was important because it provided a method of determining the relative ages of these rocks by placing them at different positions in their stratigraphic sequence. This created a global approach to dating the age of the Earth and allowed further correlations to be made based on similarities found in the composition of the Earth's crust in different countries.
Geological map of Great Britain by William Smith, published in 1815. Engraving from William Smith's 1815 monograph on the identification of strata from fossils.
In early nineteenth-century Britain, catastrophism was adapted to reconcile geological science with the religious traditions of the biblical Great Flood. In the early 1820s, English geologists, including William Buckland and Adam Sedgwick, interpreted the "diluvial" deposits as the result of Noah's flood, but by the end of the decade they had revised their opinion in favor of local floods. Charles Lyell challenged catastrophism by publishing the first volume of his book The Principles of Geology in 1830, which presented various geological evidence from England, France, Italy and Spain to support Hutton's ideas about gradualism. He argued that most geological changes in human history occurred very gradually. Lyell presented evidence for uniformitarianism the geological doctrine that processes in the present occur at the same rate as in the past and explain
all geological features of the Earth. Lyell's work was popular and widely read, and the concept of uniformitarianism became firmly established within the geological community.
In 1831, Captain Robert Fitzroy, who led the coastal exploring expedition HMS Beagle , was looking for a suitable naturalist to survey the land and provide geological advice. This fell to the lot of Charles Darwin, who had just received his bachelor's degree and accompanied Sedgwick on a two-week mapping expedition through Wales after taking a spring course in geology. FitzRoy gave Darwin Lyell's Principles of Geology, and Darwin became a defender of Lyell's ideas, inventively theorizing on uniformitarian principles about the geological processes he saw and even challenging some of Lyell's ideas. He theorized that the Earth was expanding to explain the rise, and then, based on the idea that ocean areas sank as land rose, he theorized that coral atolls grew out of coral reefs fringing sunken volcanic islands. This idea was confirmed when the Beagle surveyed the Cocos ( Keeling ) Islands, and in 1842 he published his theory, "The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs". Darwin's discovery of giant fossils helped cement his reputation as a geologist, and his theories about the causes of their extinction led to his theory of evolution by natural selection, published in On the Origin of Species in
Economic motivations for the practical use of geological data have led some governments to support geological research. In the 19th century, several countries, including Canada, Australia, Great Britain and the United States, began geological exploration, which resulted in the creation of geological maps of large areas of the countries. Geological mapping allows us to determine the location of useful rocks and minerals, and such information can be used to benefit the country's mining industry. Thanks to government and industry funding for geological research, more people began to study geology as technology and techniques improved, leading to the expansion of the field.
In the 19th century, geological studies estimated the age of the Earth to be millions of years old. In 1862, physicist William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin, published calculations that estimated the age of the Earth to be between 20 and 400 million years. He suggested that the Earth formed as a completely molten object and estimated the amount of time it would take for the near-surface region to cool to its current temperature. Many geologists have argued that Thomson's estimates are insufficient to explain the observed thickness of sedimentary rocks, the evolution of life, and the formation of crystalline basement rocks beneath the sedimentary cover. The discovery of radioactivity in the early twentieth century provided an additional source of heat within the Earth, allowing Thomson's estimated age to be increased and also providing a means of dating geological events.
By the early 20th century, radiogenic isotopes had been discovered and radiometric dating developed. In 1911, Arthur Holmes, one of the pioneers of the use of radioactive decay as a means of measuring geological time, dated a sample from Ceylon to 1.6 billion years old using lead isotopes. In 1913 Holmes was working at Imperial College when he published his famous book The Age of the Earth, in which he argued strongly for the use of radiometric dating methods rather than methods based on geological sedimentation or the cooling of the Earth. Earth (many people still believed in Lord Kelvin's calculations, which were less than 100 million years old). Holmes estimated the age of the oldest Archean rocks to be 1,600 million years old, but did not speculate on the age of the Earth. His advancement of the theory over the next decades earned him the nickname "Father of Modern Geochronology". [citation needed] In 1921, the annual meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science agreed that the Earth was several billion years old and that radiometric dating was reliable. Holmes published "The Age of the Earth, An
Introduction to Geological Ideas" in 1927, in which he presented a range of 1.6 to 3.0 billion years, increasing the estimate in the 1940s to 4,500 ± 100 million years based on measurements of relative isotope abundances uranium. founded by Alfred O.K. Nierom . Theories that did not agree with the scientific data establishing the age of the Earth could no longer be accepted. The established age of the Earth has been refined since then, but has not changed significantly.
Alfred Wegener , circa 1925.
In 1912, Alfred Wegener proposed the theory of continental drift. This theory suggests that the shapes of the continents and the correspondence of the coastline geology between some of the continents indicate that they were joined together in the past to form a single landmass known as Pangea; after this they separated and drifted like rafts along the ocean floor, having now reached their present position. Additionally, the theory of continental drift has offered a possible explanation for the formation of mountains; Plate tectonics is based on the theory of continental drift.
Unfortunately, Wegener did not present a convincing mechanism for this drift, and his ideas were not generally accepted during his lifetime. Arthur Holmes accepted Wegener's theory and proposed a mechanism of mantle convection causing the movement of continents. However, it was only after World War II that new evidence supporting continental drift began to accumulate. What followed was a period of 20 years during which the theory of continental drift evolved from something few believed in to the cornerstone of modern geology. Beginning in 1947, research provided new data on the ocean floor, and in 1960, Bruce C. Heesen published the concept of mid-ocean ridges. Shortly thereafter, Robert S. Dietz and Harry H. Hess proposed that oceanic crust forms as the seafloor spreads out along mid-ocean ridges during seafloor spreading. This was taken as confirmation of the existence of mantle convection, and thus the main stumbling block to the theory was removed.
Geophysical data indicate the lateral movement of continents and that the oceanic crust is younger than the continental crust. These geophysical data also inspired the hypothesis of paleomagnetism, a record of the orientation of the Earth's magnetic field recorded in magnetic minerals. British geophysicist S.K. Runcorn proposed the concept of paleomagnetism after discovering that the continents had shifted relative to the Earth's magnetic poles. Tuzo Wilson, who was an early proponent of the seafloor spreading and continental drift hypothesis, added the concept of transform faults to the model, adding to the classes of fault types needed to support plate mobility at the sea surface. globe function. The Continental Drift Symposium, which took place at the Royal Society of London in 1965, should be seen as the official beginning of plate tectonics being accepted by the scientific community. Abstracts of the symposium were published as Blacket , Bullard , Runcorn ; 1965: At this symposium, Edward Bullard and his colleagues used computer calculations to show how the continents on both sides of the Atlantic were best suited to close the ocean, which became known as the famous " Bullard fit ". By the late 1960s, available evidence suggested that continental drift was an accepted theory.
Conclusion
By applying sound stratigraphic principles to the distribution of craters on the Moon, it can be argued that almost overnight, Gene Shoemaker took the study of the Moon away from lunar astronomers and handed it over to lunar geologists.
In recent years, geology has continued its tradition of studying the nature and origin of the Earth, the features of its surface and internal structure. What changed at the end of the 20th century was the outlook for geological research. Geology is now studied using a more integrated approach,
viewing the Earth in a broader context that includes the atmosphere, biosphere and hydrosphere. Satellites in space taking large-scale photographs of the Earth provide such a perspective. In 1972, the Landsat program , a series of satellite missions jointly operated by NASA and the United States Geological Survey, began providing satellite imagery that could be subjected to geological analysis. These images can be used to map major geological units, recognize and correlate rock types across vast regions, and track the movements of plate tectonics. Some uses of this data include the ability to create geologically detailed maps, locate natural energy sources, and predict possible natural disasters caused by plate shifts.
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