CC BY
28УДК 81 Takobaeva A., Shakayeva D.
Takobaeva A.
Turan University (Almaty, Kazakhstan)
Shakayeva D.
Turan University (Almaty, Kazakhstan)
EXPRESSIVE MEANS OF LANGUAGE. METAPHOR AND METONYMY
Аннотация: the article "Expressive Means of Language. Metaphor and Metonymy" explores two fundamental figures of speech—metaphor and metonymy—as expressive tools in language. It discusses the primary functions and characteristics of these devices, highlighting their roles in enhancing communication by adding depth, emotional appeal, and cognitive complexity. Metaphor is examined as a means of creating new meanings through the comparison of seemingly unrelated concepts, while metonymy functions through associations based on proximity or context.
The article further analyzes the use of metaphors and metonymy across various genres, such as literature, advertising, and political rhetoric. Special attention is given to how these devices contribute to emotional and cognitive effects, as well as their role in shaping cultural and linguistic perceptions. A comparative analysis is provided, emphasizing the importance of these figures of speech in both everyday language and artistic expression.
This annotation provides a concise summary of the article's main objectives and core ideas, giving the reader an essential understanding of the subject matter.
Ключевые слова: metaphor, figure of speech, cognitive impact, emotional resonance, conceptual mapping, dead metaphors, original metaphors, extended metaphors, implied metaphors, mixed metaphors, literary devices, advertising language, everyday language, imagery, symbolism, persuasive language, creative expression, language thought, cognitive linguistics, cultural perception, expressive means, metaphor.
In linguistics, expressive means are crucial devices that enrich communication, making it more engaging, emotive, and impactful. These means refer to various
linguistic tools used to emphasize certain elements of speech, convey emotions, and enhance the aesthetic or persuasive quality of language. They help transform simple statements into more vivid, memorable, and often emotionally charged expressions. Whether used in everyday speech or in more sophisticated forms of communication like literature, expressive means play a key role in the way language influences thoughts and emotions.
Expressive means can be found at all levels of language, including phonetic.
(intonation, stress), lexical (word choice), grammatical (sentence structure), and stylistic (figures of speech). They work by manipulating the ordinary use of language to create additional meaning or emotional resonance. For instance, intonation can turn a neutral statement into a question or a command, while specific word choices can evoke strong emotional responses from the audience.
This chapter will focus specifically on two of the most significant expressive devices: metaphor and metonymy. These figures of speech are widely used not only in creative literature but also in everyday language, advertising, political discourse, and more. Both devices function by redirecting meaning from the literal to the figurative, but they do so in different ways.
- Metaphor involves describing one concept in terms of another, highlighting similarities between them. It allows the speaker to transfer qualities from one domain to another, creating vivid imagery or new perspectives on familiar ideas. For example, phrases like "time is money" or "a heart of stone" are metaphors that draw on associations between unrelated concepts (time and money, a heart and stone) to convey complex ideas in a more concise and impactful manner. The metaphor creates an analogy between two different entities, allowing the listener or reader to perceive a connection that deepens the meaning of the expression.
- Metonymy, on the other hand, works by substituting the name of one thing with something closely related or associated with it. It relies on the connection between two elements that belong to the same domain, such as referring to "the crown" when talking about a king or "the White House" when referring to the U.S. government. Unlike metaphor, which is based on analogy, metonymy operates through association
and proximity. It is a more direct form of figurative language, where the relationship between the terms is typically easier to understand because of their contextual closeness.
In this chapter, we will also distinguish metaphors and metonymy from other figures of speech and expressive means, such as simile, hyperbole, and synecdoche. For example, simile also draws comparisons, but unlike metaphors, it does so explicitly using words like "as" or "like" (e.g., "as brave as a lion"). Hyperbole amplifies reality to an exaggerated level (e.g., "I've told you a million times"), while synecdoche uses a part to represent the whole (e.g., "all hands on deck" meaning all people should help).
By examining these distinctions, the chapter will help the reader understand how different expressive means function in language, how they enhance communication, and how they influence the way we perceive and interpret messages. We will also explore the cognitive and cultural significance of these figures, as they often shape not just individual statements, but entire ways of thinking within specific linguistic and cultural contexts.
In summary, this chapter will provide a foundational understanding of how metaphor and metonymy function as expressive means in language, setting the stage for a deeper exploration of their use in various genres and contexts. By understanding these devices, we gain insight into the power of language to influence perception, shape emotion, and enrich human communication.
The Concept and Function of Metaphor.
A metaphor is one of the most significant and widely-used figures of speech in language. It functions by describing one concept in terms of another, emphasizing similarities between the two to help the listener or reader understand the abstract or complex idea more vividly. In metaphors, the literal meaning is replaced by a figurative one, which allows for a deeper, more layered interpretation of an idea. For instance, when we say "life is a journey," we are not speaking about life and travel in the literal sense, but rather drawing a parallel between life and the experiences, challenges, and growth that occur over time.
Metaphors are more than just stylistic devices, they are cognitive tools that shape how we think about the world. By relating abstract ideas to more concrete, familiar ones, metaphors make complex concepts easier to understand. This process of conceptual mapping—where one domain of experience is understood in terms of another—plays a crucial role in everyday language, literature, and even scientific discourse.
From a cognitive perspective, metaphors influence how we organize our thoughts.
According to linguist George Lakoff and philosopher Mark Johnson, who co-authored "Metaphors We Live By", metaphors are embedded in our cognitive structures and shape our understanding of abstract concepts like time, love, or power. For example, the metaphor time is money reflects how we conceptualize time as a valuable resource that can be saved, spent, or wasted, influencing how we perceive and manage it in real life. Such metaphors become so deeply ingrained in our thinking that we often use them unconsciously.
Emotionally, metaphors allow us to express feelings in a way that resonates with the listener or reader. A metaphor like "a sea of grief" evokes a powerful image of overwhelming sorrow, helping convey emotions that might otherwise be difficult to articulate. Because metaphors engage the imagination, they often evoke stronger emotional responses than literal language. This makes them particularly effective in poetry, advertising, and political speech, where the goal is to connect with the audience on an emotional level.
Types of metaphors.
Metaphors come in many forms, each serving different purposes and functioning in unique ways. Below are some common types:
1 Dead Metaphors: Dead metaphors are phrases that have become so familiar that their metaphorical origins are no longer noticed. Phrases like "foot of the mountain" or "the heart of the problem" are examples of dead metaphors. Although they originated as creative expressions, their frequent use has rendered them ordinary,
losing much of their figurative power. They are used so often that people interpret them in their literal meaning, making them less striking or evocative.
2 Original (or Creative) Metaphors: These are fresh, imaginative metaphors that present novel ways of understanding concepts. Creative metaphors are often found in literature and poetry, where writers aim to surprise or move readers. For example, in Sylvia Plath's poem "Morning Song," she refers to a baby as "a fat gold watch," a metaphor that captures the preciousness of the child and the idea that time with them is fleeting. Original metaphors engage the audience's imagination, offering new perspectives and emotional depth.
3 Extended Metaphors: Extended metaphors, also known as conceits, are metaphors that are developed over several lines or even throughout an entire piece of writing. These metaphors allow for a more detailed and nuanced exploration of the comparison. In Shakespeare's *As You Like It*, the famous lines "All the world's a stage, / And all the men and women merely players" constitute an extended metaphor, comparing life to a theatrical performance, with each person playing their role on the world's stage. The metaphor continues for several lines, exploring the different "acts" and "roles" people play throughout their lives.
4 Implied Metaphors: Implied metaphors suggest a comparison without directly stating it. Instead of clearly comparing two things, the metaphor implies the comparison through descriptive language. For instance, saying "He barked orders at his team" implies a comparison between the person and a dog, without explicitly mentioning the dog. Implied metaphors rely on the audience's ability to recognize the unstated connection between the two concepts.
5 Mixed Metaphors: Mixed metaphors occur when two or more incompatible metaphors are combined, often resulting in a confusing or humorous effect. For example, "We'll burn that bridge when we come to it" mixes the metaphors "cross that bridge when we come to it" and "burn your bridges," creating an illogical combination. While mixed metaphors can be seen as language mistakes, they are sometimes used deliberately for comic effect or to emphasize confusion or inconsistency.
Examples of metaphors in various contexts.
Metaphors permeate all areas of life and communication. Here are some examples of how they are used in different contexts:
1 Literature: In literature, metaphors are used to convey complex themes and emotions, often giving readers a fresh perspective on familiar ideas. For example, in F. Scott Fitzgerald's *The Great Gatsby*, the metaphor of the "green light" at the end of Daisy's dock symbolizes Gatsby's unattainable dream and the larger theme of the American Dream. The metaphor works on multiple levels, representing both a personal goal and a broader societal aspiration.
2 Advertising: In advertising, metaphors are often used to create strong, memorable associations between products and desirable qualities. The slogan "Red Bull gives you wings" is a metaphor that suggests the energy drink can provide consumers with the energy and vitality they need to "soar" in life. While the claim is figurative, the metaphor is effective because it evokes an image of strength and freedom.
3 Everyday Speech: In everyday conversations, metaphors are used unconsciously to describe abstract or emotional experiences in concrete terms. For instance, phrases like "a rollercoaster of emotions" or "breaking the ice" are metaphors that convey feelings of unpredictability or awkwardness in social situations. These metaphors make abstract emotions easier to understand by relating them to physical experiences.
Metaphors are an essential element of language, deeply ingrained in how we communicate and conceptualize the world around us. They are not just stylistic devices used to beautify speech, rather, they serve as cognitive frameworks that allow us to grasp complex or abstract ideas by relating them to more familiar, concrete experiences. In this way, metaphors bridge the gap between the known and the unknown, helping us process information more effectively and making abstract concepts easier to understand.
For example, when we say "time is money," we are using a metaphor to describe the abstract concept of time by equating it with a tangible resource—money.
This metaphor helps convey the value of time and the need to manage it efficiently in a way that resonates with our everyday experiences. Such metaphors shape not only how we express ourselves but also how we think, influencing our perceptions and decisions.
In literature, metaphors enrich storytelling by adding layers of meaning and emotional depth. Poets and novelists use metaphor to evoke imagery, stir emotions, and offer insights into the human experience. A well-placed metaphor can transform a simple narrative into something profound, creating connections between the reader's personal experiences and the fictional world. For instance, in Shakespeare's As You Like It, the famous metaphor "All the world's a stage" presents life as a performance, offering a perspective on the roles we play and the transient nature of human existence.
Outside of literature, metaphors are equally impactful in areas such as politics, business, and advertising. Politicians often use metaphors to frame their messages in ways that are relatable to the public, influencing how people perceive policies and ideologies. In advertising, metaphors can create emotional associations with a product, making it more appealing to consumers. Phrases like "Your car is your freedom" or "This product is your secret weapon" create strong, emotional connections that enhance the product's appeal by tapping into the audience's desires and aspirations.
Even in everyday conversation, metaphors are ubiquitous. We "face challenges," "build relationships," or "navigate through tough times," using metaphors to express experiences that may otherwise be difficult to describe. These everyday metaphors help shape our understanding of life's complexities and allow us to relate to others by sharing common linguistic imagery.
The power of metaphor lies in its ability to engage both the cognitive and emotional faculties. By connecting disparate ideas, metaphors stimulate our imagination and provoke thought, encouraging us to sthings from new perspectives. They make language more dynamic, allowing us to communicate more vividly and effectively. Through their widespread use, metaphors not only enrich language but also shape the way we perceive and interact with the world.
In conclusion, metaphors are far more than ornamental language devices, they are foundational to our understanding of reality. By linking abstract ideas to concrete images, they enhance our capacity to communicate, learn, and make sense of our experiences. Whether through literature, media, or casual conversation, metaphors play a crucial role in making language more engaging, emotionally resonant, and intellectually stimulating. Their ability to illuminate complex ideas makes them an indispensable tool for both communication and thought.
СПИСОК ЛИТЕРАТУРЫ:
1. Lakoff, George, and Mark Johnson. "Metaphors We Live By";
2. Shakespeare, William. "As You Like It";
3. Fitzgerald, F. Scott. "The Great Gatsby";
4. Plath, Sylvia. "Morning Song";
5. Lakoff, George. "The Contemporary Theory of Metaphor" (1993);
6. Red Bull Advertising Campaigns
