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4EXPORT COMPETITIVENESS AS A SCIENTIFIC CATEGORY: EPISTEMOLOGICAL
ROOTS AND THEORETICAL FORMATION
Elena V. Sapir
Yaroslavl State University named after P.G. Demidov, Russia E-mail: anneym@mail.ru
Olga V. Kaplina
Yaroslavl State University named after P.G. Demidov, Russia E-mail: aleksanderskidan@mail.ru
Igor A. Karachev
Yaroslavl State University named after P.G. Demidov, Russia E-mail: i.karachev@uniyar.ac.ru
Abstract. The paper presents a systemic view of the evolution and formation of export competitiveness as an initial category of a holistic scientific concept. The growing importance of exports for individual national economies and world economic development as a whole and the deep involvement of countries in international trade fundamentally change the traditional view of exports as a a foreign economic activity of economic entities that derived from the national activity. Unlike domestic competitiveness, export competitiveness today is formed on the basis of global value chains and reflects a deep integration of the value of goods created by domestic production of the exporting country and imported products incorporated in national exports. The paper solves four interrelated problems. Firstly, it establishes the epistemological roots and scientific sources of the concept of export competitiveness. W. Rostow's theory of modernization, the theory of economic dependence of countries by A.G. Franck and the World-System Theory of I. Wallerstein are considered as the fundamental research of the concept of export competitiveness by the authors. The direct theoretical sources of the concept of export competitiveness are: the theory of international production and transnational corporations, the theory of global production networks and value chains, and the theory of competitive advantage. Secondly, we reviewed the theoretical approaches to understanding the essence of export competitiveness presented in the modern scientific literature. Thirdly, the paper outlines in general strokes how the system of categories of the emerging concept of export competitiveness should be deployed. The system includes such successive categories as extensive and intensive competitiveness, physical and brand competitiveness, initial, mature, and strategic competitiveness; innovatively stratified competitiveness, functionally differentiated competitiveness. Fourthly, it formulates proposals on how to further develop the concept in the context of tiered economic analysis, rethinking the new role of imports in exports and its relationship with global value chains.
Keywords: export competitiveness, global value chains, export, extensive competitiveness, intensive competitiveness, physical competitiveness, brand competitiveness, strategic competitiveness.
JEL codes: O32, L26, C13
For citation: Sapir, E.V. & Kaplina, O.V. & Karachev, I.A. (2021). Export competitiveness as a scientific category: epistemological roots and theoretical formation. JOURNAL OF REGIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL COMPETITIVENESS, 3(2), 23-32. Retrieved from http://jraic.com/index.php/tor/article/view/27/21
DOI: 10.52957/27821927_2021_2_23
Introduction
Globalization, which began in the 2nd half of the last century, has transformed the relations of the world economic system as a whole and, among other things, significantly changed the way in which companies and countries compete in the global economy. In scientific literature, the category of export competitiveness has not yet taken its own worthy place in the system of categories of the world economy, although it is obvious that it is also in demand in theoretical analysis of the evolution of competition in world markets. It is both in demand in policy decisions — in the formation and implementation of state foreign trade policies
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and programs to support national exporters, and in practical terms — to implement strategic objectives and competitive advantages of exporting companies. This paper provides a theoretical review of scientific concepts of export competitiveness and offers an independent interpretation of its essence as a scientific category of modern global economic knowledge.
Epistemological roots and evolution of the concept of export competitiveness
The analysis of the system of views on export competitiveness (hereinafter — EC) can only be considered within the general evolution of scientific schools of the world economy in the post-war period. The epistemological roots of the concept of export competitiveness date back to the middle of the last century, when the main theoretical lines of analysis of the modern world economy were formed. Three theoretical systems contributed significantly to the foundations of the future knowledge of export competitiveness. Firstly, the theory of modernization (Rostow, 1991), which considered the further progress of the world economy in the context of Western leadership: progressive technological and economic-social transformations start in the advanced industrial economies of the West and subsequently spread to the rest of the world. Secondly, the theory of economic dependence (Frank, 1967), which at the beginning categorically perceived the development of economic relations between the West and the Third World as a way to further backwardness and degradation of the latter, but later (in the 1970-80s) inclined to a more flexible position, allowing mutually beneficial trade and investment cooperation between all participating countries. Thirdly, the concept of World-System (Wallerstein, 1979) of the outstanding philosopher and economist I. Wallerstein, who proposed a three-tiered model of the world. It includes the countries of the world core, the world periphery, and the intermediate layer — the countries of the semi-periphery, occupying a transitional position in the spatial and economic structure of the world economy (South Korea, Mexico, Brazil, India and others). These theories methodologically determined the main slices of export competitiveness analysis (Figure 1).
Each theoretical system had its own limitations:
- the theory of modernization practically excluded the possibility of changing the trajectory of socioeconomic progress and deviating from the works of W. Rostow's stage-based historical plot.
I Export Competitiveness
Figure 1. The epistemological roots and sources of the emerging theory of export competitiveness
Source: composed by the authors
- the theory of economic dependence bore the "birthmarks" of the processes of crisis, disintegration, and collapse of the colonial system of imperialism, so it was formed in one way or another as the opposition of developed and developing (at that time — liberated from political dependence) economies.
- The World-System paradigm became a prisoner of its own achievements, and its theoretical polishing turned into the preservation of the closed nature of certain strata (the Industrial North, the Backward South, the European Modernity, and the Eastern Archaicism).
In the mid-XX, the system of scientific views underwent a radical transformation due to the revolution in basic science and technology (Information Age), which led to the emergence of new social productive forces and a new stage of integration of world development. In the last third of the XX century, with the worldwide growth of economic freedom and the model diversity (liberalization phase) and the diversification of world growth trajectories, world economic processes of out-of-country nature start to grow as well: globalization, intersectoral restructuring, macroregional integration. There is a new breakthrough of knowledge, there are scientific theories that can be qualified as theoretical sources of export competitiveness:
1. Theories of transnational corporations and international production. The organizational and scientific formulation of this scientific direction was first of all achieved at Harvard Business School and the Centre for TNC Research at Southbank University in London (Ietto-Gillies, 2019; Hymer, 1970).
2. Theories of competitive advantage of extra-country nature — five competitive forces and M. Porter's cluster theory, P. Krugman's Economies of Scale (Porter, 1990; Krugman, 1979).
3. Theories of global product chains, subsequently — global value chains (hereinafter — GVC) (Gereffi, Humphrey & Sturgeon, 2005). The evolution of the theory of global product chains has its origins in I. Wallerstein's work and marks a landmark transition from a fundamental World-System concept to a more practice-oriented World-Economy (Hopkins & Wallerstein, 1986). As a development of this direction, in 1990, Alfred P. Sloan Foundation launches a large research project in New York called the Industry Studies Program (Alfred P. Sloan Foundation. Industry Studies), later the Rockefeller Foundation sponsored the research project Global Value Chains Initiative (2000-2008) (Duke University. Global Value Chains Initiative). It is in the materials of these projects that the term "export competitiveness" appears for the first time (Kaplinsky, 2004) and, more importantly, becomes widespread in the world economic research.
Review of theoretical approaches to defining export competitiveness
Export competitiveness as a category and its connection with economic growth was covered in classical theory in the works of B. Balassa (Balassa, 1977), who developed the concept of "revealed" comparative advantage of G. Liesner (Liesner, 1958). B. Balassa's contribution to the assessment of export competitiveness consisted in the development of the so-called B-index or coefficient of relative export specialization: the ratio of the share of a good (industry) in national exports to its share in world exports. From theoretical and methodological positions, the concept of B. Balassa was supplemented by D.G. Mayes: international trade and economic integration increase the export competitiveness of domestic producers, as it opens for them more capacious, more competitive markets and specialization, based on the comparative advantages of the national economy (Mayes, 1978). With deep international cooperation and strong cross-border production chains, the EC has undergone a strong transformation. The increasing use of imported components and the localization of parts of the production process in different countries means that final exports may contain a high percentage of foreign value added and a correspondingly low percentage of exporting country value added. The value of final exports will contain both domestic value added and imported value added.
A major advance in the development of the EC theory was the UNIDO development of a methodology for compiling a global ranking of the export competitiveness of countries and the corresponding EC index (Zhang, 2014). The Composite Country EC Index (XC) is calculated as the geometric average of the products of the three normalized indicators: the per capita volume of a country's industrial exports (MXpc), the share of industrial exports in the country's total exports (MXsh) and the share of high- and medium-tech exports in industrial exports (MHMXsh):
XC = %/MXpc x MXsh x MHMXsh,
>
where the component indicators of all countries are normalized on a scale ranging from 0 to 1 (lowest and highest value) for the whole set of compared countries. Rationing is performed according to the following principle (the same for all three indicators):
M ni = (Ni - Min) ^ (Max - Min)
>
where n = 3 (MXpc, MXsh, MHMXsh); N is the absolute value of the indicator for the i-th country; i is the number of countries in the population; Max and Min are the maximum and minimum values of the indicator for the countries in the aggregate. UNIDO's approach to the interpretation of export competitiveness caused a discussion in the scientific literature and was generally welcomed by most participants of the expert community.
Further analysis of EC has led to its decomposition into separate components. The documented research notes the following among the main components: export adaptability, export innovativeness, unpredictability, flexibility of tasks. Export adaptability refers to a firm's ability to match its external environment and the export performance of key firms (Morgan et al., 2003). Export innovation is defined as "openness to new ideas and an aspect of corporate culture" (Calantone, Cavusgil & Zhao, 2002); innovation reflects an export firm's ability to use new methods, techniques, and ideas in export processes to create or reconfigure value added. The unpredictability of exports comes from the difficulties in anticipating possible actions in international markets, involving the reconfiguration of existing resources that allow international firms to form new rules of participation in the competitive environment (Austin, Devin & Sullivan, 2012); unpredictability is generally regarded as an uncontrollable characteristic of the environment. Task flexibility is the fourth option; in export, it reflects the multifunctional competencies of export managers who can work equally effectively on sales, marketing, service, and customer support (Campion, Medsker & Higgs, 1993).
The competitiveness category is unique because it covers both macroeconomic and microeconomic levels of a country's export efficiency. The discussion in the context of the tiered approach is deeply rooted in theory: back in the mid-1990s, Paul Krugman called competitiveness a "dangerous obsession" and reduced it to productivity (Krugman, 1994). Competitiveness, according to P. Krugman, turned out to be an ""elusive"" concept, and economists could not reach a consensus on how to define and measure the international competitiveness of the economy (Krugman, 1997). It is widely known that P. Krugman argued that one can only speak of competitiveness in relation to a firm, but one cannot speak of national competitiveness. If a corporation is inefficient and its business is unprofitable — which is exactly what it means by being uncompetitive — then it eventually goes bankrupt. But it is much harder to grasp how and when a country becomes uncompetitive and what does this logically lead to? To this day, this discourse is one of the most fruitful sources of scientific thought in competition theory and the system of EC categories discussed in the next section owes much to its emergence.
So, firstly, export competitiveness is in its infancy as a holistic concept that combines several disciplines and is relevant at different levels: of the firm, industry, national economy as a whole. Secondly, at the firm level today, it focuses more on general functional business capabilities, processes, productivity, and company performance without highlighting the specific attributes and thesaurus of EC. Thirdly, modern economic thought has developed and formed scientific approaches to the system of categories of national EC, which is understood by most researchers as the country's total share in world exports, but not a simple quantitative indicator, but a dynamic one; it is about the increasing structural share of the country in the advanced echelons of world exports: growing share of high value medium- and high-tech exports with a decreasing share of primary products and products of extractive industries (Porter & Rivkin, 2012).
The system of categories of the emerging concept of export competitiveness
The total scientific knowledge about EC today is not logically complete; we have tried to generalize and systematize the available knowledge with the prospect of further construction of a holistic categorical scientific apparatus of EC. Export competitiveness should be understood as the potential or realised ability
of an exporter to supply its goods/services to foreign markets on a sustainable basis, providing a socially required level of quality of goods/services, recovering its costs and making a profit corresponding to the socially normal level of profitability, while maintaining or expanding a strategically significant market share of a particular good/service.
There are several key points for classifying EC.
Depending on the exporter's place in the organizational system of product promotion, there is physical EC and branded EC. In GVCs aligned with the key (branded) producer, a "physical" EC is formed — the ability of the country's national companies to meet "physical" production standards as much as possible in capital-intensive high-tech industries with a rigid system of coordination. The basis of physical EC is a high level of technical standardization of products and strict compliance with the hierarchy of technological processes and quality along the entire chain. Physical EC exists in both developed and developing countries. Thus, in the manufacturer's GVC, the EC is possessed by the one who fits the leader's requirements. In GVCs built for a well-known brand owner (brand owners, as a rule, do not produce themselves, but only create product design, issue specifications, and sometimes hold their own brand trade networks), a "branded" EC is formed — the ability of national companies of the country to create flexible production and sales networks, to which all types of production and related operations are transferred. The essence of branded EC is the independence and flexibility of producers within decentralized production under a single "umbrella" brand of mainly consumer goods; finished products are sourced mainly from developing countries. Thus, in the Buyer's GVC, the one who, other things being equal, suits the large intermediary (retailer, trader, trading network) has the EC.
In the dynamic dimension, export competitiveness is revealed in two categories: as intensive EC and extensive EC. Intensive competitiveness occurs when exports grow in quantity terms while the composition of exports to the same trading partners remains unchanged. Extensive competitiveness occurs when exports grow through market expansion: if firms start exporting their existing products to new partners, or through innovation, when firms develop new products and export them to existing partners, or enter new markets with them (matrix illustration of the processes — in Fig. 2). Intensive EC provides export growth within existing supplies of "old products" to "old destinations" (OPOD — Segment I.A), while extensive EC can include 4 variants of changes: modified "old products" — "old destinations" (OPOD — I.B) combinations; new destinations, where "old products" are exported to "new destinations" (OPND — II); new combinations: "new products" are exported to "new destinations" (NPND - III); and a new range: "new products" are exported to "old destinations" (NPOD — IV).
"Old" Products New Products
(OP) (NP)
"Old"
Directions
(OD)
New
Directions (ND)
^^^^^^^ Intensive growth
Extensive growth
Figure 2. Export growth based on intensive and extensive export competitiveness
Source: Beltramello, De Backer & Moussiegt, 2012
I.A IV.
Existing OPOD
combination New
OPOD NPOD
combination
I.B
II. III.
OPND NPND
EC associated with the effects of value generation of network nature is formed in local strata of innovation type:
- supply-chain cities that integrate all the links from procurement to the finished product, including design centers and showrooms. The essence of EC is the rapid training and "absorption" of competencies and knowledge of new technologies and management through the attraction of foreign direct investment of major TNCs, which are favored by local authorities, provincial leadership, and the state (Zhang, To & Cao, 2004);
- firm-factories, each of which belongs to a particular large well-known company and combines different parts of the reproduction chain — design, supply, production, while minimizing transaction costs, significantly saving on scale and providing more flexible chain management (Appelbaum, 2008);
- cluster cities. These clusters cover the entire social and communal complex near the factories, including production buildings, dormitories, and employee welfare services. They initially focus on a single product, but as they grow, they involve related and supporting businesses. The essence of EC is, a highly developed transport infrastructure and logistics provide low transport costs and high speed of delivery of export goods (Kusterbeck, 2005);
- town-and-village enterprises. Transitioning town-and-villages have been established mainly as part of government production and export development projects in traditional agricultural areas. The essence of their EC is the reorientation of industrial policy towards the development of high value segments of reproduction chains and high-tech export with maximum cooperation with all the subjects in the territory (Wang & Meng, 2004).
- Industrial condominiums are giant full-service industrial agglomerations, more typical of Latin American countries. The essence of EC is geographical concentration of production in these growing countries and organizational consolidation of GVCs. They have realized the critical need for key global manufacturers to reduce the number of partners and retain the most efficient and most conveniently located suppliers. Gradually, these suppliers pushed back the key producers themselves (Hasegawa, Venanzi & Silva, 2015).
Judging by the functional criterion, within the structure of global production chains, EC is differentiated by value-added functions: the higher is the function of the exporter in the product-production chain, the higher is its export competitiveness. The challenge of increasing EC is to identify the conditions under which countries and firms can continuously move up the value chain from basic assembly operations using cheap, simple labor to increasingly sophisticated forms of "full package" supply and integrated technologies (Figure 3). The reality is that the bulk of high-cost activities are concentrated in the pre-production and post-production functional segments, forcing companies to develop these segments more actively. Companies from developed economies are firmly entrenched in high value-added segments, while producers from emerging economies are concentrating on lower value-added functions.
Ex po rt
sts
CO
Intangible assets — preproduction
Tangible assets — production
Intangible assets — postproduction
Figure 3. "Smiling" curve of global value chain segments
Source: Baldwin, Ito & Sato, 2014
The general logic of development of the system of export competitiveness categories is presented in Fig.
4:
- The initial category is the initial EC, in which the exporter is embedded in the primary, or production, functions of a single (main) value chain with a simple raw material or initially processed semi-finished product; in this case, more often than not, the expansion of the exporter's presence in the foreign market comes as a natural development and depends on the production strategy of the chain leader;
- The expanded category is a mature EC, in which the exporter diversifies its foreign markets by products and enters parallel or adjacent to the main production chains with a semi-finished technically sophisticated intermediate product; in this case, more often the exporter's expansion of presence in the foreign market is more independent and coordinated with the production strategies of several large companies-leaders of the chains;
- The developed category is the strategic EC, in which the exporter of branded products independently controls/expands/reduces its presence in foreign markets in accordance with the conjuncture and export strategies of the company; the position in the production chain is associated with the upper level functions: R&D, product design, marketing and promotion, feedback. The exporter usually controls the retention in foreign markets and further expansion (both product and geographic), which are secondary to the top level and long-term corporate strategic goals: inclusive growth, social responsibility, ecosystem synergy, and human capital wealth.
Geographic and organizational
structure of export activities
Are a
of
dev elo pm ent
Local structure (local institutions,
clusters, stakeholders)
Functional structure of the value chain
Fixation with final products in final export markets
First enter to the GVC with primary product (initial segment)
Moving outside the
GVC with intermediate product (into adjacent and parallel GVCs)
Initial EC
Mature EC
Strategic EC
Maturity of export competitiveness (degree of control over external
markets)
Figure 4. Development of export competitiveness of participants in global value chains
Source: composed by the authors
Conclusion
The epistemological roots of the theory of export competitiveness are formed by three fundamental theoretical systems: the theory of transnational corporations and international production; the theory of competitive advantage ("Porter's diamond") and cluster theory; theories of global product chains, later — global value chains.
Export competitiveness as an initial category represents an independent scientific category reflecting the ability of the exporter to supply its goods to foreign markets steadily, providing the socially necessary level of quality, while recovering costs and making a profit corresponding to the socially normal level of profitability and maintaining or expanding strategically important market share.
The differentiation of the category "export competitiveness" implies distinguishing and studying its specific forms: extensive and intensive; physical and brand; initial, mature, strategic. The evolution of the
concept means the unfolding of the logical system of categories related to the original category — export competitiveness, through the study of the essence of economic processes of the world economy linked to exports to foreign markets. In this case, a special competitiveness is formed that emerges in local innovative strata. Functionally differentiated competitiveness is formed at different stages of value generation in the GVC.
The concept of export competitiveness, like any young theory, is in dire need of further productive development. It is worth evaluating some critical positions and directions for further analysis.
First. Development of level analysis of export competitiveness
There is no clear distinction between analysis levels of EC in the existing studies. Most authors recognize that export competitiveness as a scientific category synthesizes three levels of analysis: macro-level, meso-level, and micro-level. But then there are discrepancies: what exactly is meant by EC at each level, since the understanding of these levels varies from author to author? The reason for the incompleteness of the analysis and the inconclusive nature of some of its results, in our view, lies in the methodological confusion of two approaches: institutional, when countries are taken as the main actors of the global economy, and organizational, when the focus of analysis is on transnational companies and inter-firm business networks.
Second. Rethinking export competitiveness in the context of the new role of imports in exports
Numerous studies have revealed a strong reciprocal relationship and conditionality between the growth of global imports of intermediate goods and global exports of final products. There is a clear trend towards an increase in the "import content" of the country's exports under conditions of strengthening vertical industrial-trade integration. This raises the question: what is the meaning of export competitiveness today, given the fact that countries' exports themselves largely contain previously imported and "processed" imports of intermediate products.
Third. The link between export competitiveness and the integration of countries into global value chains
The emergence and development of GVC changes approaches to the understanding of export competitiveness. But theory involuntarily continues to recognize developed economies as leaders, although in fact a transformational structural shift in trade flows has already occurred, and developing countries have surpassed developed ones both in volume and growth rate of medium- and high-tech exports, not only in the supply of intermediate products, but also in finished products. A critical rethinking of the new architecture of the EC in the relationship between developed, top developing, emerging, and transitional economies is also overdue.
Thus, the directions of future EC research are related to the further development of the logical structure of export competitiveness categories, which will allow obtaining new scientific results not only in the development of the theoretical concept and its practical application.
Acknowledgеments
The study was conducted with the financial support of RFBR, research project No. 19-114-50018.
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© Elena V. Sapir, Olga V. Kaplina, Igor A. Karachev, 2021
Received 12.02.2021 Accepted 23.03.2021
