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EXPLORING THE DIVERSE IMPACTS OF RADICALISED VIOLENT IDEOLOGIES ON SOCIETAL DYNAMICS
DR. AYAZ KHAN
Chief Coordination Officer, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Centre of Excellence on Countering Violent Extremism,
Pakistan
Email: drayazkhan53@gmail.com DR. MUHAMMAD QASIM Director General, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Centre of Excellence on Countering Violent Extremism, Pakistan
Email: qasimkhandaudzai@gmail.com MR. MUHAMMAD WASIF Principal Research Officer Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Centre of Excellence on Countering Violent Extremism,
Pakistan Email: wasif@kpcve.gov.pk MR. MUHAMMAD UMAIR Principal Research Officer Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Centre of Excellence on Countering Violent Extremism,
Pakistan Email: umair@kpcve.gov.pk
Abstract -This study examines the concerns raised by professionals and regular individuals regarding the potential role of the Internet in facilitating radicalization. This study examines the growing concerns surrounding the prevalence of violent extremist content on the internet. It acknowledges the collective apprehension expressed by academics, policymakers, and the public regarding this issue. This research article presents an overview of the key unresolved inquiries pertaining to the utilization of the internet, particularly social media, by violent extremists and terrorists. Additionally, it proposes six potential avenues for further investigation in this domain. This study aims to address the existing knowledge gaps regarding the utilization of the internet by terrorist groups and violent extremists. By exploring unanswered questions, this research seeks to enhance our understanding of their online activities. This research abstract presents the five most significant suggestions. This research abstract proposes three key areas of focus for future research: conducting comparative studies across various ideologies, groups, countries, languages, and social media platforms; incorporating interviewing and virtual ethnographic methods into analyses; and enhancing the collection and analysis of "big data." These areas aim to enhance the understanding of diverse perspectives and improve research methodologies in the field. This research abstract focuses on five key aspects: (1) examining the impact of collaboration and knowledge sharing, (2) investigating the role of technology in enhancing communication and connectivity, (3) exploring the benefits of interdisciplinary research approaches, (4) analysing the significance of community engagement and involvement, and (5) exploring opportunities for expanding outreach efforts beyond our immediate community.
BACKGROUND
Digital natives express concern about IS's online content to the public and government. No link found between online extremist content and radicalization or terrorism. No evidence supports the idea that internet radicalization leads to violent behaviour. Concerns exist about individuals being radicalised by violent extremist content online and potentially engaging in violent actions. The finished product is the most important outcome of the making process. The article doesn't provide insights on how the Internet impacts new forms of extremism and terrorism due to complex underlying issues. This article summarizes six ways to study the Internet's impact on violent extremism and terrorism. This article focuses on three main points. This article discusses the impact of the Internet on extremism and terrorism based on scientific literature. In the second part, we explore the claim that the internet's global availability facilitates the spread of terrorist and extremist ideas. The article's third part poses two research questions and offers six suggestions
for future research on violent extremism and terrorism online. This part is called "Part three" (especially on social media). Researchers should broaden their views, compare more, consider virtual ethnography, explore Internet studies, collaborate across disciplines, and consider gender. The author emphasises the need for a theoretical and empirical foundation in this rapidly growing research area.
Comparing descriptive and explanatory research helps you learn more about both. Explanatory research seeks to understand why something occurred rather than simply describing it. Descriptive researchers combine existing data to provide historical or modern overviews of a subject or problem. Imagine any hypothetical outcome you desire. Is the Internet more important in terrorism today? We often try to find the cause of things by looking into what might have caused them. Internet use is linked to terrorism, but it is hard to explain why. Is the Internet to blame for the rise of terrorism? Studying the Internet's impact on violent extremism and terrorism is crucial, but there is a lack of quality research on this subject. To understand violent extremism and terrorism, it's crucial to examine the internet's role. The internet is increasingly important in both areas. Few studies use traditional descriptive methods or new theoretical methods to establish a correlation between two variables.
The amount of information available today is incredible. William McCants spoke to the House Subcommittee on Counterterrorism and Intelligence in December 2011. It's strange that no one has investigated this despite the abundance of online information. Zawahiri's words spread globally. Are there numbers showing which major US cities have been hit hardest? Many heard about it through social media sites like Facebook and YouTube. How are these two things related? No studies support the main point of this argument.
Research on how jihadi activists use the Internet is still limited, despite the passage of time since the September 11 attacks and the emergence of popular jihadi Internet forums almost a decade ago. Researchers analyzed al-Qaeda and its allies' primary sources. Little attention has been given to how propaganda spreads and who else reads it besides counter-terrorism researchers. Studying violent online communities in a lab is uncommon. Questions start with "what" and "why." Academics debate the Internet's role in violent extremism and terrorism, including radicalization.
REVIEW
In the context of violent extremism and terrorism, is the online world an ideal medium for exploitation? How so if that's the case? If not, why not?
In their 2014 study, Kruglanski et al. examined the radicalization/deradicalization model and identified three key components. The first component is the motivational aspect, which involves the individual's search for personal significance and the establishment of a committed goal. The second component is the ideological aspect, which not only identifies the use of violence as an appropriate means to achieve the established goal but also justifies its use. Lastly, the third component involves the social process of networking and group dynamics, which play a crucial role in the individual's adoption of the violence-justifying ideology and subsequent implementation of violent actions to attain personal significance. In this literature review, they present compelling empirical evidence that aligns with the assumptions of our model. We delve into the implications of our findings for the development of effective policies aimed at preventing radicalization and promoting deradicalization.
According to Meleagrou-Hitchens, Alexander, and Kaderbhai (2017), there is a prevailing agreement among scholars that, although there are notable exceptions, the internet primarily functions as a facilitator and catalyst for terrorist organisations and their networks, rather than directly causing radicalization. The existing body of literature presents a range of analyses on the topic, but consensus suggests that the virtual sphere is not a complete substitute for the physical world in most cases. Primarily, an examination of the existing literature reveals that to address the pivotal inquiries presented in this article, additional research grounded in empirical evidence is necessary. In their recent study, Guazzini, Stefanelli, and Imbimbo (2020) examined the potential impact of key online factors, including anonymity and physical isolation. The authors recognised the
significance of considering these factors in understanding their role in various contexts. This literature review focuses on the examination of how individuals who have become radicalised exploit various characteristics of online environments to enhance their effectiveness in persuading others to conform to radical ideologies.
According to Donnelly (2021), the author emphasises that gender analysis is a skill that requires practise. The author further suggests that the fundamental elements of a gender analysis are built upon skills that researchers commonly possess. In the realm of gender analysis, researchers engage in a comprehensive exploration of various facets. They pose inquiries, acknowledging that certain questions may surpass the scope of their current project. By scrutinizing power dynamics, they aim to discern the intricate interplay between different actors and their influence. Moreover, researchers delve into the examination of diverse identity markers, discerning how these markers shape and wield power. Gender analysis plays a crucial role in enhancing the quality of research and policy recommendations pertaining to violent extremism.
People have discussed the internet's role in radicalization and terrorism for a while. Walter Laqueur, a leader in Terrorism Studies, believes that emails have no political impact globally, including in the Baka Valley, Tel Aviv, Kurdistan, Turkey, the Jaffna peninsula, Colombo, India, or Pakistan. Laqueur's perspective. He is a renowned expert in Terrorism Studies. The rule is followed the same way regardless of the computer's location. It's difficult to make virtual strength real in this situation. Laqueur's claim about smuggled recordings of Khomeini's speeches sparking the Iranian Revolution is intriguing. Laqueur is knowledgeable about the impact of audiocassettes in modern Iran but has limited knowledge about the Internet's role in aiding terrorist groups. David Rapoport included ICTs in politically violent movements as part of his wave theory of terrorism. Technology, especially communication technology, can change the nature, timing, and spread of terrorist acts. Laqueur used to be skeptical. In 2011, Jason Burke discussed the connection between social media and terrorism.
Tweets aren't a good substitute for busy people. Only devout Muslims engage in conversations on social media. Neither method works well in real life. Social media facilitates global volunteer help and donations. Useful in logistics and marketing, not firefighting. Twitter won't help Al-Shabaab take over Mogadishu or Kabul.
Burke doesn't consider virtual world events as "grassroots activity." He wrongly generalizes how Muslims in majority-Muslim countries use social media. In late 2011, over 25% of people in the UAE, Lebanon, Jordan, and Kuwait used Facebook. Burke finds Twitter not useful on the ground. Utilize a free website for team fundraising, recruitment, communication, and information sharing. Many disagree, saying "real-world" experience is more useful. In-person interactions are important alongside online ones, given the rise of social media and propaganda. Real-life interactions are as important as online interactions. Radicalization and terrorist groups will persist. The UK Home Affairs Committee's report on stopping terrorism reflects the enduring presence of al-Qaida compared to other terrorist groups. Extremist internet content may radicalize people. Social radicalization will remain a major cause of future terrorist acts. In 2014, many people in the British government still held this belief. They lack knowledge or understanding of social media. The Internet facilitates finding and sharing extremist content and encourages global discussions about it. Academics and government officials believe the Internet plays a significant role in radicalization.
This doesn't diminish the Internet's significance in radicalization to violence. Most online supporters of violence do it for fun and are not a threat in the real world. Online venting can reduce the likelihood of acting on emotions. Active online community members are believed to be less prone to real-world violence or terrorism. Many who claim to be "extremists" seeking violence online are seeking attention. Self-proclaimed extremists often seek attention through such actions. GCHQ says secret activities can occur in virtual reality. The "toxic" online disinhibition effect has led to widespread discussions and threats of violence on social media, overwhelming authorities if all violent extremist posts were reported. Most trolling is harmless and doesn't lead to real-world violence.
Some sceptics doubt the Internet's power to radicalize people due to varying reactions to violent extremist content. Exposure to violent extremist content hasn't radicalised academics, journalists, or others over the years. Terrorism and violent extremism may unite the public against those responsible. You may lack diverse experiences for observations. Watching extremist content is harmful. Since 2010, reports claim that 70% of UK terrorists have read Inspire. Do Inspire readers feel responsible for others' deaths? Did they plan an attack after reading the magazine? Can "Inspire" be used for multiple types of attacks? Online violence is not the main cause of radicalization. Any supporting studies for my assumptions? 48.5% of people in the Middle East have internet access, compared to 88% in North America.
The Internet spreads extremist ideas, promotes terrorism. Terrorist attacks in the UK usually leave digital traces. In 2012, Norman Bettison, former chief of police in West Yorkshire and current head of ACPO Prevent, stated that the Internet is involved in most terrorism cases, but not all. Contrary to Marc Sageman's view, online recruiting has replaced in-person recruiting. 26 experts confirm that the Internet influences young people's radicalization in relation to modern extremism and terrorism. How can we ensure jihadists don't need to meet in person before acting globally? As likely as a male Twitter follower "brainwashing" teenage girl in their bedrooms. Same chance. Men and women may be different. Insufficient evidence limits our understanding. Going public
People who search the internet to learn about terrorist groups and violence usually don't care about the entire internet. To improve, try discussing with other academics and reading unrelated books. Researchers in fields such as computational linguistics, computer science, information systems, and statistics can benefit from studying Internet culture. Richard Jackson's question will greatly impact various academic fields, such as conflict studies, Internet studies, peace research, and media studies. Jackson wondered why years of research on the causes and solutions of violent political conflicts had not made any progress in the field of terrorism studies. He was very curious about why "nothing" had been found. Terrorism scholars don't pay attention to important thinkers and new research when discussing war, peace, and terrorism.
Why do experts ignore studies on how media affects conflict, including terrorism and violence? To answer the question in the article's title, we will discuss why there has been more research on terrorism and the internet, specifically social media. We will not reference important scholars or existing studies on media and communication research or internet studies. Next, we will examine the following. In this article, we will explore how the Internet, especially social media, is involved in terrorist activities. This question is easier to answer than the harder one, which asks why social scientists don't work more closely with computer scientists and statisticians. It tests our knowledge of what our colleagues in the social sciences do. This question will test our knowledge of what our social science colleagues do for a living. This book examines various aspects of terrorism using communications theory. It is crucial to emphasise the importance of researching online to combat terrorist and extremist propaganda. Online groups will likely conduct reliable and comprehensive investigations. A lot of text has been written about how true and reliable the Internet is. While this study does not primarily focus on violent extremism and terrorism, it does discuss significant topics such as the fluctuation of online credibility. Hence, it remains important. Hegghammer's analysis of jihadi online forums is based on this literature, but his peers haven't paid much attention to it. Online studies have found that only a few users contribute most of the content to discussion forums and social networking sites. Berger and Morgan found that out of the 40,000 user accounts they studied, around 1,500 to 3,000 were highly active on Twitter when it came to IS-related content. However, they didn't say that this could be partly explained by research on non-extremist online environments. IS is still known for "playing the system." Talking to a communication or internet studies expert is different from talking to a computer scientist or linguist. This makes it more difficult to conduct research across multiple fields. When studying radicalization and terrorism in the modern world, terrorism is more important than radicalization. Social scientists need assistance from others who are skilled in using tools and can make necessary changes for complex analyses. The best results happen when computer science experts and those familiar with online extremism
work together. Computer scientists work with social scientists because they believe it can be profitable. Computer science and sociology should collaborate more to study terrorism and develop more effective strategies to prevent it. Working together with your coworkers may lead to better outcomes.
In addition to reiterating some of the points I have previously mentioned, I would like to emphasize the significance of gender studies in understanding the phenomenon of online violent extremism. The inaugural edition of Al-Khansa, a jihadist magazine specifically designed for women, was published online in 2004. This magazine was authored by women, catering to a female audience. The "Ladies Only" forum on Stormfront, a website known for promoting white supremacist ideologies, has been in existence since 2007. Since then, a total of 1,156 topics and 48,780 replies have been posted on that platform by female users. Over the past decade, there has been a lack of academic focus on the online activities of female jihadists and right-wing extremists, despite the extensive media coverage on this subject. During the 1990s and 2000s, women played significant roles on the websites of three militant organisations: the FARC, the New People's Army, and the Tamil Tigers. To date, there have been no conducted studies that have specifically examined the online presence of the subject in question. Due to limited information, there is currently a lack of knowledge regarding the extent of women's participation and influence within extremist online communities. In the realm of digital media, individuals such as Malika El-crucial Aroud have gained significant recognition by portraying characters that they might not have been selected for in a conventional medium. When discussing extremist women, it is commonly mentioned how they exert influence over men through online platforms. Despite the recent media coverage surrounding the "jihadi brides" in Syria, the situation remains unchanged. It is crucial to acknowledge the increasing presence of violent female radicals on the internet.
It is important to note that studies on how gender influences online terrorism and violent extremism should not solely focus on female users. These studies also consider men as subjects of analysis. While there are women who actively participate in these roles, most narratives surrounding women and their involvement in violent extremism and terrorism tend to be presented from a male perspective. This statement remains true, even though women may also assume some of these roles. I am intrigued by the idea of exploring the portrayal of jihadi women in official online publications, as well as in social media and other online platforms. It would be intriguing to explore the contrast between the roles depicted in violent jihadi cyberspaces and the roles that women aspire to have in such environments. Over the course of history, the traditional roles of men and women have undergone changes. Does the presence of more well-known women leaders in radical online communities' stem from the fact that there are more women activists, or are there other factors contributing to this phenomenon?
A photograph depicting a group of women who identify as jihadists has gained significant attention and popularity on the internet and in Western media. The image showcases these women posing alongside weapons and a luxurious car. I don't know the name of the photographer who took the picture. The purpose of these pictures is to illustrate the contrasting portrayal of women in violent jihadism, specifically highlighting their roles in both public ("frontstage") and private ("backstage") settings. The objective is to capture the viewer's attention and highlight this distinction. The portrayal of Syrian women in these images depicts them engaging in activities that are considered "romantic" and "adventurous," which contrasts with the typical behaviour of female jihadists in Syria. In terrorist videos and other forms of online propaganda, it is observed that female characters are rarely depicted as being harmed or killed. The photos depicting "girls with guns" do not provide a comprehensive understanding of the experiences of being a "jihadi bride." However, a widely circulated article on Arab jihadi internet networks, which was recently translated by a British researcher, sheds light on this topic in English. The story revolves around a woman who entered into a marriage with a person involved in jihadi activities. The book "Women in the Islamic State" explores the concept of motherhood as a divine duty in the context of Arabic culture. The statement suggests that a woman's primary purpose is to fulfil this obligation. There is a consensus that being a housewife holds value regardless of age. It is emphasized that it is crucial for mothers
with young children to prioritise spending ample time with them. The document is valuable for two reasons. Firstly, it is intriguing. Secondly, it demonstrates how language can be employed to segregate online audiences into distinct factions. Additionally, the document reveals that IS knows certain young women aspire to hold positions of greater significance than that of muhajirat, or "migrants." Due to this, IS is attempting to create an online narrative that is more attractive to women. The document is not only interesting, but it also serves as a valuable source of instruction by demonstrating the effectiveness of reaching diverse online audiences. To summarize the tense situation between the competing digital entities, a young woman might express her thoughts on Twitter, saying, "I'm considering the possibility of taking a bold action like Mulan did and joining the battle." A young woman is inspired by the Disney movie "Mulan" to join the military, despite it being historically dominated by men. In the online world, individuals have the freedom to assume any identity they desire, a luxury that is considerably more challenging to achieve in offline or "real life" situations. Initially, there were individuals who perceived the service as a virtual platform that allowed people to explore and experiment with various aspects of their gender identity. Recent studies have explored the concept of allowing players to choose the gender of their in-game character. Is it possible for individuals who are involved in online jihadist communities to undergo a sudden change in their gender identity? One of the initial studies examining the impact of YouTube on radicalization revealed an interesting finding. It was observed that individuals with a higher social status within the online community under investigation were less inclined to disclose their gender voluntarily. One of the studies revealed this finding to the public. Among the top ten users consistently ranking in the top three for various social network metrics, there were five women and five individuals who did not specify their gender. All these individuals were members of the social network. There was speculation that a few of the five users, whose genders were indeterminate, might be women. The reason why this was believed to be true is because there were five users involved. Many online communities that focus on Islam often have separate chat rooms designated for men and women. Based on the author's research, it has been found that female academics who participate in online extremist forums tend to create new online identities that resemble those of men more frequently compared to their male counterparts. Women professors are more likely to experience this than their male counterparts. The Internet has played a significant role in facilitating this trend, and if it is indeed accurate, it suggests that women in extremist online communities may possess more influence than previously believed. It is intriguing to consider how the Internet has contributed to the growth of this trend if it is indeed true. There is a possibility that things can go in the opposite direction, but it is important to note that this may lead to unintended consequences.
RESEARCH GAP
Significant research gaps exist regarding the Internet's role in the dissemination of terrorist ideas and the spread of violent extremism. The research of Rapaport suggests a cyclical pattern of terrorist activity, with specific causes and effects. Terrorist organisations have adapted their strategies using various forms of media, including the Internet. Insufficient research exists on the online recruitment of young women and their participation as "jihadi brides" in Syria. To identify research gaps, it is essential to conduct social sciences research based on solid theoretical foundations and empirical evidence from real-world situations. It is difficult to identify research gaps in long-term studies of the Internet's functionality due to its dynamic nature.
CONCLUSION
The Internet is largely responsible for the dissemination of terrorist ideas and the proliferation of violent extremism. According to Rapaport's research, waves of terrorist activity occur in a cyclical pattern, with specific causes leading to certain effects. Terrorist organisations have adapted their strategies to effectively utilize various forms of media, including television, radio, audio cassettes, and more recently, the Internet. Violent extremists invest significant time and effort into their online marketing, leading them to believe that their efforts are yielding positive results. Anecdotes
are incredibly important, and their significance cannot be overstated. It appears that the increase in calls for their deaths is connected to a rise in previously uncommon attacks such as car-ramming and stabbings. Additionally, the online recruitment of young women has resulted in a significant number of "jihadi brides" travelling to Syria. Two recent events have taken place in Syria: attacks and an increase in the number of "jihadi brides." To gain a comprehensive understanding of the Internet's role in radicalization today, it is crucial to conduct research in the social sciences that is both grounded in solid theoretical foundations and backed by empirical evidence from real-world scenarios. While the initial study on the relationship between violent extremism and the Internet was published in 1985, most studies on this topic have been conducted in the 2000s. There has been a significant increase in the number of studies since 2010, and particularly in the past year. While the initial study on the relationship between violent extremism and the Internet was published in 1985, most studies on this topic were conducted and published during the 2000s. There are numerous unanswered questions regarding what and why this unprecedented event has occurred. Long-term studies of how the Internet works are challenging due to its constant evolution and dynamic nature. Due to the abundance of online content that promotes violent extremism and terrorism, conducting typical tests used in other areas of Internet audience research becomes challenging. To conduct this experiment, participants would be exposed to online content that is both disturbingly violent and believed to have the potential to radicalize young individuals. While this situation poses challenges to the investigation process, it does not render it completely unachievable. The authors of this article aim to propose six ideas for future research on the Internet's impact on violent extremism and terrorism in the current era. However, it is important to note that this article cannot address all aspects, such as online research ethics or the involvement of Internet companies as political intermediaries. I am trying to understand the advantages and disadvantages of the additional safety measures implemented by various sports leagues.
RECOMMENDATIONS
It is important to address the role of the Internet in spreading terrorist ideas and promoting violent extremism and to closely monitor and counteract the online activities of terrorist organisations, as they have become adept at utilizing various forms of media, including the Internet, to promote their agendas. It is proposed to consider the role of anecdotes in understanding the relationship between the Internet and radicalization in society. Long-term studies on the Internet's role in radicalization are difficult due to its ever-changing and dynamic nature. The article suggests exploring six areas for future research on the influence of the Internet on violent extremism and terrorism in the present era. However, it is important to consider other aspects such as online research ethics and the role of Internet companies as political intermediaries.
REFERENCES
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[6] David Rapoport, "The Four Waves of Rebel Terror and September 11," Anthropoetics 8(1) (2002). Available at http://www.anthropoetics.udb.edu/ap0801/terror.htm7goback .gde_3131037_mem ber_5798090843084578819 (accessed 27 March 2015).
[7] Jason Burke, "Al-Shabab's Tweets Won't Boost its Cause," The Guardian, 16 December 2011.
[8] Arab Social Media Report, "Dynamic Dashboard: Facebook Penetration, 31 December 2011." Available at http://www.arabsocialmediareport.com/Facebook/LineChartEhspx?&PriMenulD i8&CÖi/D 24&P?nu Cat (accessed 27 March 2015).
[9] Jamie Bartlett, "You Can't Prevent Terrorism by Singling Out Muslims," The Telegraph, 19 Febru- ary 2015.
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[11] House of Commons Home Affairs Committee, Counter-Terrorism: Seventeenth Report of Session 2013-14 (London: The Stationery Office, 2014), pp. 6-7.
[12] Awan et al., Radicalisation and Media, pp. 58-59 and 64-65; Gilbert Ramsay, "Relocating the Vir- tual War," Defence Against Terrorism Review 2(1) (2009), p. 35.
[13] Intelligence and Security Committee of Parliament, Report on the Intelligence Relating to the Mur- der of Fusilier Lee Rigby (UK: Her Majesty's Stationery Office, 2014), p. 131.
[14] John Suler, "The Online Disinhibition Effect," International Journal of Applied Psychoanalytic Stud- ies 2(2) (2005). See also Jamie Bartlett, The Dark Net (London: Windmill Books, 2015), pp. 41-42.
[15] As quoted in Intelligence and Security Committee of Parliament, Report on the Intelligence Relat- ing to the Murder of Fusilier Lee Rigby, p. 60; see also Alexander Meleagrou-Hitchens, As Ameri- can as Apple Pie: How Anwar al-Awlaki Became the Face of Western Jihad (King's College London: ICSR, 2011), p. 56.
[16] Aaron Zelin, The State of Global Jihad Online, p. 8; see also Thomas Hegghammer, "Interpersonal Trust on Jihadi Internet Forums," in Diego Gambetta, ed., Fight, Flight, Mimic: Identity Signalling in Armed Conflicts (forthcoming). Available at http://hegghammer.com/_files/Interpersonal_ trust.pdf (accessed 27 March 2015), p. 5.
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[18] Andrew Silke, "The Impact of 9/11 on Research on Terrorism," in Magnus Ranstorp, ed., Map- ping Terrorism Research: State of the Art, Gaps and Future Direction (London:
Routledge, 2007), p. 84.
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[21] An exception is Charlie Winter, Documenting the Virtual Caliphate (London: Quilliam Founda- tion, 2015).
[22] Benjamin Ducol, "Uncovering the French-speaking Jihadisphere: An Exploratory Analysis,"
[23] Media, War & Conflict 5(1) (2012).
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[26] Justpaste.it is a particularly important node in the contemporary violent jihadi online scene; Pas- tebin and Paste.ee are also used as repositories. In terms of video-hosting, Dailymotion, Media- Fire, Vid.me, Vimeo, and a host of other more obscure sites (e.g., Hugefiles.net, Uploadhero.com, Uptobox.com) are also employed.
[27] These include Ask.fm, Diaspora, Flickr, Instagram, SoundCloud, Tumblr, VKontakte, and others.
[28] Zeynep Tufekci, "Big Questions for Social Media Big Data: Representativeness, Validity and Other Methodological Pitfalls." Available at http://arxiv.org/ftp/arxiv/papers/1403/1403.7400.pdf (accessed 30 November 2015), p. 2.
[29] von Behr et al., Radicalisation in the Digital Era, p. 8.
[30] Janet E. Salmons, Qualitative Online Interviews: Strategies, Design, and Skills (London: Sage, 2014).
[31] Daniel Kohler, "The Radical Online: Individual Radicalization Processes and the Role of the Internet," Journal for Deradicalization 1 (Winter2014/15).
[32] Tim Ingold, "Anthropology is Not Ethnography," Proceedings of the British Academy 154 (2008), p. 69.
[33] Christine Hine, Virtual Ethnography (London: Sage, 2000); Robert Kozinets, Netnography: Doing Ethnographic Research Online (London: Sage, 2009).
[34] Thomas Hegghammer, "Why Terrorists Weep: The Socio-Cultural Practices of Jihadi Militants" (Paul Wilkinson Memorial Lecture, University of St. Andrews, April 16, 2015), p. 2. Available at http://hegghammer.com/_files/Hegghammer_-_Wilkinson_Memorial_Lecture.pdf (accessed 21 April 2015).
[35] Erika Pearson, "All The World Wide Web's a Stage: The Performance of Identity in Online Social Networks," First Monday 14(3) (2009).
[36] Terrorism Studies," Critical Studies on Terrorism 5( 1) (2012), p. 12.
[37] Archetti, Understanding Terrorism in the Age of Global Media.
[38] The ISIS Twitter Census, p. 29.
[39] Ducol, "Uncovering the French-Speaking Jihadisphere,"pp. 54-55.
[40] Marc Sageman, Leaderless Jihad: Terror Networks in the Twenty-First Century (Philadelphia: Uni- versity of Pennsylvania Press, 2008), p. 112.
[41] Charlie Winter's translation of "Women in the Islamic State" is available at https://www.quilliam foundation.org/wp/wp-content/uploads/publications/free/women-of-the-islamic-state3.pdf (accessed 30 November 2015). See also Charlie Winter, "Women of The Islamic State: Beyond the Rumor Mill," Jihadology.net 31 March 2015. Available at http://jihadology.net/2015/03/31/guest- post-women-of-the-islamic-state-beyond-the-rumor-mill/ (accessed 26 April 2015).
[42] Hoyle et al., Becoming Mulan?, p. 32.
[43] Adam Bermingham et al., "Combining Social Network Analysis and Sentiment Analysis to Explore the Potential for Online Radicalisation, " pp. 234-235.
[44] Martey et al., "The Strategic Female. "
[45] ADL, Computerized Networks of Hate.
[46] Kruglanski, A. W., Gelfand, M. J., Bélanger, J. J., Sheveland, A., Hetiarachchi, M., & Gunaratna, R. (2014). The psychology of radicalization and deradicalization: How significance quest impacts violent extremism. Political Psychology, 35, 69-93.
[47] Meleagrou-Hitchens, A., Alexander, A., & Kaderbhai, N. (2017). The impact of digital communications technology on radicalization and recruitment. International Affairs (Royal Institute of International Affairs 1944-), 93(5), 1233-1249.
[48] Guazzini, A., Stefanelli, F., & Imbimbo, E. (2020). Further examples of violent attitudes: The online radicalisation. Preventing Violent Radicalisation in Europe: Multidisciplinary Perspectives, 191 -208.
[49] Donnelly, P. (2021). Demystifying Gender Analysis for Research on Violent Extremism. Resolve Network, https://doi. org/10.37805/rve2021, 2.
