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Original Paper Оригинальная статья
EXPLAINING INTERNATIONAL NEGOTIATION
S. Sekhri
University of Algiers 3 Ibrahim Sultan Cheibout sofiane.sekhri@aol.co.uk
Submitted: May 10, 2020 Поступила в редакцию: 10 мая 2020 г.
Reviewed: May 24, 2020 Одобрена рецензентами: 24 мая 2020 г.
Accepted: May 29, 2020 Принята к публикации:29 мая 2020 г.
Abstract
International negotiation has been traditionally examined within the framework of general studies related to international conflict, foreign policy and the diplomatic function or in the context of researching the strategies of commercial enterprises and international companies when dealing with other actors in global politics. However, it is a rare occurrence to find scientific papers specializing in international negotiation that go into detail in order to give a thorough and accurate picture of the subject. Thus, by employing the inductive approach, this scientific contribution looked at the deep details of international negotiation from various perspectives with the intention of providing an indepth synthesis and a specialized outlook which lead to the full understanding of the issue. Even though this inductive reasoning did not neglect the fact that international negotiation is interconnected with diplomacy, foreign policy and international relations, the paper's major focus was the anatomy and illustration of the key conceptual issues and practical procedures related to international negotiation with the purpose of assisting students and researchers in conducting investigations and workshops on case studies.
In order to carry out this task, the article deals with international negotiation from various levels and angles; this includes the definition of international negotiation, its main characteristics and foundations, the key actors concerned with it, its forms and tools, in addition to its terms and key requirements for its success. The paper explores as well the different strategies employed in international negotiation and clarifies the main stages of the negotiating process.
Keywords: International negotiation, types, characteristics, foundations, terms, strategies, stages
For citation: Sekhri, S. (2020). Explaining International negotiation. Eurasian Arabic Studies, 10, 106-122.
ОБЪЯСНЕНИЕ ОСНОВ МЕЖДУНАРОДНЫХ ПЕРЕГОВОРОВ
С. Сахри
Университет Алжира 3 им. Ибрагима Султана Шийбута sofiane.sekhri@aol. со. ^
Аннотация
Международные переговоры традиционно рассматривались в рамках общих исследований, связанных с международными конфликтами, внешней политикой и дипломатии, или в контексте изучения стратегий коммерческих предприятий и международных компаний при взаимодействии с другими участниками глобальной политики.
Однако в настоящее время следует отиметить недостаточное количество научных работ, в которых детально и всестороннне рассматриваются сущность и характерные черты понятия «международные переговоры». В данной статье подробно анализируются термин, типология, основные черты и ключевые понятия «международных переговоров», а также основные стратегии проведения международных переговоров. Несмотря на то, что международные переговоры тесно связаны с дипломатией, внешней политикой и международными отношениями, в статье особое внимание уделяется ключевым вопросам и практики проведения международных переговоров, что послужит основой для дальнейших исследований в этой сфере. Для выполнения этой задачи в статье рассматриваются международные переговоры с разных уровней и точек зрения, в том числе, значение международных переговоров, их основные характеристики и основы, заинтересованные стороны, их формы и инструменты, а также условия и основные требования к их успешности.
В статье также рассматриваются различные стратегии, используемые в международных переговорах, разъясняются основные этапы переговорного процесса.
Ключевые слова: международные переговоры, виды, характеристики, основы, термины, стратегии, этапы
Для цитирования: Сахри С. Объяснение основ международных переговоров // Арабистика Евразии. 2020. № 10. С. 106-122. (на английском языке)
INTRODUCTION
Man has resorted to negotiations since the primitive groupings of humankind, with the aim of agreeing on the division of resources and the demarcation of borders between primitive tribes and peoples. All the major milestones that led to fundamental transformations and shifts in international relations were the product of intense negotiation between the significant international actors that characterized each stage, commencing with the Westphalia Agreements, passing by the agreements of colonization and decolonization and the division of spheres of influence among the great powers, to the arms and disarmament agreements along with treaties related to trade, environmental and human rights issues as well as other matters1. Consequently, international negotiation has always been a means to resolve crises, settle disputes and organize the international system, which raises several questions about it, such as, what is international negotiation? And, what are its main forms, characteristics, foundations, terms, strategies and stages? MATERIALS AND METHODS
To answer these questions, the article employed the inductive approach that relies on observing the sub-phenomena that make up the general phenomenon and collecting data concerning the theme with the intention of building up a total picture, i.e. moving the study from the lower sub-subjects to the general issue and from the part to the whole and from simple partial cases to the general and common rules. With other words, the inductive method simply means judging the whole of what is in its many parts as a way to help offering results that are more general than the narrowly focused introductions.
To carry out this methodological choice, this study has broken down the phenomena of international negotiation into several parts that mainly branched into the meaning
:The Peace Treaties of Westphalia or the Treaties of Münster and Osnabrück signed in 1648 took five years of negotiations. See on this subject, Derek Croxton: "The peace of Westphalia of 1648 and the Origins of Sovereignty": The International History Review: Vol. 21, N. 3: London and New York: Taylor & Francis. Ltd: September 1999: PP 569-591. The colonial partitioning of Africa was partly the outcome of negotiations between European powers in the Berlin Conference of 1884-1885 on the scramble for Africa. On the subject of arms control negotiations, documents related to major negotiated agreements are available in a survey conducted by the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI). For further information on the subject see, Jozef Goldblat: Arms Control: The New Guide to Negotiations and Agreements: The Stockholm Peace Research Institute (PRIO): Sage Publications: 2002.
of international negotiation, its types, characteristics, foundations, conditions for its success, strategies and stages. The course of research required a survey of some literature and works that dealt with these sub-issues from the political, diplomatic and commercial aspects. In this endeavor, this scientific contribution provided a conceptual and practical detail for each part separately, before giving a general and comprehensive picture regarding international negotiation as a whole, in both conceptual and practical aspects. This path culminated by ending the research, notably in the conclusion, with an emphasis on the relationship between international negotiation and other broader spheres, moving hierarchically from diplomacy to foreign policy into international relations, which is the broadest whole where international negotiation, the diplomatic function and foreign policy actions are taking place.
The Meaning of International Negotiation:
Despite that the tasks of diplomats can be broken into six key domains: ceremonial, management, information/communication, protection, normative/legal and international negotiation, a strong linkage between diplomacy and international negotiation remains as diplomacy in its simplest meaning is generally defined as the art and practice of negotiating and the art of managing international relations through international negotiation (Barston, 2014, p. 2). The controversial issue here is that diplomacy means international negotiation; however, the opposite is not accurate seeing that international negotiation does not necessarily means diplomacy as the conduct of international negotiation does not strictly rely on diplomatic tools since it requires the gathering of all foreign policy instruments, including economic, cultural, military as well as diplomatic. For instance, during the course of international negotiation states might employ promises, aid, pressure, bluff, threat, deterrence and all tools of stick-carrot in all fields, including the military, in order to direct the path of negotiation to the desired outcomes that serve the national interest of the state (Shimko, 2017, pp. 93-117).
International negotiation is a multidisciplinary sphere relevant to several academic fields including, business, management, communication, law, psychology, political science, international studies and conflict resolution. This multidisciplinary scholastic character led researchers to define international negotiation from different angles and perspectives, the most important of which are the following:
- International negotiation is the stage that precedes an international agreement on settling a conflict or establishing cooperation.
- It is a form of peaceful interaction between states.
- It is a form of international communication.
- It is a game comprising a set of players, moves/strategies, and outcomes/ payoffs.
- It is a pulling and hauling game within the international legal norms aiming at achieving the goals and gains of the state by employing psychological factors and exploiting internal and external capabilities of the state.
- It is a means of settling international disputes amicably.
- It is a procedure to bring the power of the argument replaces the argument of power or force in international relations.
- It is the stage that precedes a state decision with respect to a foreign policy issue.
- It is a path through which proposals and perceptions are presented and points of divergence and convergence are debated and amendments as well as corrections are provided in order to reconcile views.
- It is the art of reconciling conflicting interests.
- It is a tool for organizing business relationships and sharing profits between companies and other economic actors in a friendly manner.
- It is an essential mechanism for maintaining a dynamic international stability through the enhancement of the international system's capability to deal with uncertainty, unpredictability and uncontrollability (Starkey, Boyer, & Wilkenfeld, 2015, pp. 1-8; Mautner-Markhof, 1989, pp. 1-4).
Based on the above selected definitions, the following comprehensive definition can be provided: International negotiation is the art and the process of talks, consultations, discussions and bargains between conflicting or rival parties on common issues of conflicting interests. As an art and process, international negotiation has its own roots, actors, forms, rules, norms, terms and stages. Types of International Negotiation:
International negotiation is conducted by accredited representatives such as heads of states and governments, foreign ministers, the executives, ambassadors, heads of diplomatic missions, special envoys, parliamentarians, managers, consultants and experts.
The types of international negotiation differ according to the nature and intensity of the negotiation or according to the number of parties involved in the negotiating course. Moreover, the tools used in the negotiation and the outputs of the negotiating process are also crucial determinants in the classification of negotiation types. The following forms are highly significant in this context: 1- Oral Talks, which could be later, recorded in written reports and records.
2- Written Negotiations, through which diplomatic notes and reports are exchanged between negotiating parties.
3- Soft Negotiation, which occurs when the opponent party is a gentle style negotiator and open for concessions and compromises.
4- Hard Negotiation, which occurs when the opponent party is a hard and stiff negotiator who is not ready for concessions and compromises, this behavior put the other party in a minimal choice situation, namely, 'you take it or leave it'.
5- Bilateral Negotiation, which includes two direct parties, regardless of the involvement of other parties acting as mediators or conducting good offices role.
6- Multilateral Negotiation, involving more than two direct official parties.
7- Power-Based Negotiation, which occurs when the state imposes its plan of action during negotiation through threat, deterrence and violence.
8- Right-Based Negotiation, which is distinguished with its resort to the power of law, such as invoking the courts and arbitration, in order to solve the negotiated issue.
9- Interest-based Negotiation, which is a negotiation that mainly revolves around the interest and how to reach an agreement that, satisfies the needs and interests of the parties. The interest in this type of negotiation is at the same time a need, an issue and an objective.
10- Distributive Negotiation, which is a zero-sum game negotiation with a win-lose outcome in which each side wants more than half of the pie, with other words, the gains of one party in the negotiating process are offset by absolute losses for the other side. In this form of negotiation, the parties involved become more competitive and contentious.
11- Integrative Negotiation, which is a non-zero sum game negotiation with a win-win out come. This type of negotiation occurs when negotiating parties share gains and profits and strive hard to reach mutually beneficial settlement. This form of negotiation reflects the true spirit of negotiation because, unlike war, international negotiation seeks to reach a common agreement, not victory (Schneider & Honeyman, 2017; Kremenyuk, 2003).
The Main Characteristics of International Negotiation:
In relation to the main characteristics of international negotiation, the following points can be emphasized:
1- Intensification and complexity of relationships between international actors lead to conflict and cooperative behaviors, geographically, economically, culturally, militarily and diplomatically, therefore, this trend of intensification and complexity widens the use of international negotiation in international relations.
2- International negotiation is an integrated and ongoing process rather than fragmented and separate activities.
3- International negotiation is a potential process whose outcomes are uncertain and not known in advance.
4- International negotiation is voluntary and not compulsory.
5- International negotiation is subject to materialistic and realistic considerations both internal and external, and is as well subject to considerations related to the nature of negotiators in terms of psychological training and negotiation skills.
6- The negotiator's field of formation and expertise affects the course of negotiation, as the lawyer's behavior differs from that of the businessman during negotiation, and the behavior of the politician differs from that of the lawyer's or economist.
7- Perceptual interactions between negotiators are significant in determining the course of negotiation as any misinterpretation of the other party's behavior leads to inappropriate reactions and affect the negotiating process.
8- Despite that negotiations are supposed to be subject to certain specific technicalities, the national character and the cultural setting of the state have an enormous effect on the negotiating style and behavior of the negotiator (Cohen, 2002).
The Major Foundations of International Negotiation:
As a give and take interaction, international negotiation requires five main bases:
1. The Negotiating Issue:
Negotiations revolve around a particular issue or topic; political, geographic, economic, military or humanitarian. International negotiation is conducted to conclude an agreement, resolve a conflict or face an emergency crisis. Negotiations can also be conducted to extend an agreement or contracts or to normalize a certain relationship or establish a new relationship.
2. The Negotiating Parties:
As mentioned previously, negotiations can be bilateral or multilateral. Negotiations might include parties that are directly concerned with negotiations called direct parties, whilst, negotiations could also include indirect or third parties such as pressure and good offices parties as well as mediators. Moreover, negotiations could be under the auspices of an international organization or in the framework of a regional or international congress and summit.
3. The Negotiating Objective:
It is a set of desires for which programs, plans and strategies are allocated to achieve them during negotiating sessions or at the end of negotiations because when
negotiating there are interim goals associated with sessions and rounds of negotiation and there are general and final goals that appear with the end of rounds of negotiation.
4. The Negotiating Information:
This means to be aware about minimal information regarding the negotiating issue, the negotiating parties and the negotiating objective. As a negotiator, it is crucial to set your own objective but, in meantime, to be informed about other's objective.
5. The Negotiating Power/Authority:
This means the limit of authority and delegation granted to each negotiator in the framework permitted by the parties he/she represents or by international laws and norms. On the other hand, a negotiator can build negotiation power and strengthen negotiating capabilities through three main power sources: (a) a strong BATNA, .i.e. preparing a Best Alternative To the Negotiated Agreement, as the existence of an outside alternative strengthens the bargaining power and places the negotiator in a comfortable position compared with those with limited or no alternative choice, (b) role power, which occurs when the negotiator occupies a highly ranked and prestigious position that promotes his/her negotiating stance and esteem compared with those sitting with him/her around the table of negotiation, and (c) psychological power, which occurs when the negotiator manipulates his/her opponents psychologically by creating and establishing a fake feeling that he/she is more advanced in terms of strength (M&A Directions: Preparing for Negotiations, 2017; Power in Negotiation, 2019). Terms of Successful Negotiation:
Successful negotiation occurs when all negotiating parties receive the largest possible share of profits and gains. However, assessing the success of any agreement is not limited to the agreement's items and its implications, but is also linked to the extent of respect for the implementation of the agreement and adherence to its articles in the medium and long term.
Generally, preparing and achieving a successful agreement requires successful negotiation, and the success of the negotiating process requires, in turn, creating conditions and terms that guarantee this success. In this framework, a successful negotiation needs the following conditions and requirements:
- All parties should be convinced to be engaged in negotiating process, which itself requires recognizing the existence of crisis and the necessity to resolve it.
- A good selection of the appropriate time for the start of negotiations.
- All parties should demonstrate a desire to find balanced and acceptable solutions and a willingness to search for solutions with non-zero payoffs. And as John F. Kennedy said in one of his famous quotes: "You cannot negotiate with people who say what's mine is mine and what's yours is negotiable" (Kennedy, 1961).
- A minimum level of trust between the negotiating parties.
- The flexibility and non-hardening of the negotiating parties.
- The organization of preliminary and friendly meetings to ease the tension between conflicting or competing parties before the official start of negotiations.
- Determining the nature of the conflict or dispute and identifying the roots and causes as well as the most significant actors concerned with it.
- A deep look at the official documents and international commitments related to the matter in dispute or under negotiation.
- To go back to the precedent agreements and solutions on similar contentious issues.
- Depicting a range of possible proposals in line with the international legal frameworks and the possible needs of negotiating parties.
- To begin discussing the issues of simple or small and less argumentative and leave the complex issues to a later stage.
- Rounds of negotiations should be limited on the topics in the agenda and not to discuss issues outside the agenda programmed for each round.
- Secrecy to keep negotiation away from external influences and other international pressures and interests.
- Holding negotiations in a short period and a rapid completion of the resolutions of the negotiating results in order to impede outsiders or new conditions to create new tensions
- At last, the successful negotiators are those who hold reliable sources of intelligence and have the ability to gather, organize and widely exploit the information data. Besides, the mastery of technical reports reading and the creativity in thinking by preparing alternative strategies and tactics constantly are as well key elements in negotiation succeeding. Moreover, the success of any negotiated agreement is also assessed according to its effectiveness in terms of practical and actual application, in addition to its flexibility in adapting with the even most unusual situations (Cihosz, 2017).
International Negotiation Strategies:
With regard to strategies, these range from cooperative and conflict-based strategies to bluff, deterrence and psychological manipulation. Among the prominent are:
1- The Strategy of Cooperation:
This includes the establishment of common interest relations with the opposite side, to expand cooperation with opponents in new areas, to deepen relationship if cooperation already existed or provide grants and assistance to competing parties. The side that employs this type of strategy should acts rather than reacts by offering rewards to bribe opponents and developing an open and integrated working relationship with other parties.
2- The Strategy of Anticipation:
In this case, the negotiator put himself/herself in the other party's shoes by predicting their possible tactics and strategies. This approach requires the gathering of maximum information about the opponents.
3- The Strategy of Gaining Confidence: In order to reduce tension or achieve
the most gains, the negotiator attempts to build and gain the opponent's confidence by several ways including the build-up of personal and informal relationships with the opponent's negotiating team or through the employment of what is called 'Mirroring Tactic' by which the negotiator mirrors and approves the opponent side's behaviors, viewpoints and statements in order to gain their confidence.
4- The Strategy of Deadlines:
In this case, the negotiator uses concrete or artificial timeframes in order to apply pressure to the other parties and push them to make rush and uncalculated decisions.
5- The Strategy of Attrition/Exhaustion:
This includes draining the time of opponent through extending negotiating time for the purpose of exhausting the opponent, or draining the opponent's effort by dumping it into false debate or into elements that do not serve the negotiating issue, as well as draining the opponent's financial resources by pressing for practices that increase spending on the negotiating process.
6- The Strategy of Dispersion:
This aims at dispersing the other negotiating parties or dispersing the ranks and members of the opponent's negotiating team.
7- The Good Guy/Bad Guy Strategy:
This approach is employed when the same negotiating side adopts a two-role division by which the good negotiator/negotiators supports the conclusion of the contract and serves to build trust with the opponent side, whilst, the bad negotiator/negotiators from the same team continually rejects deals and solutions in order to trick the opponent side and keep them in constant pressure and doubt.
8- The Strategy of Psychological Destruction:
It is a psychological war or manipulation that aims to strike the hopes and aspirations of the adversaries through obstacles and problems that make the opponent doubt about the possibility of reaching the negotiating objective.
9- The Brinkmanship Strategy:
This approach seeks the achievement of advantageous results and the forcing of the opponent to back down and make concessions by the use of fear and intimidation tactics that pushes dangerous situation to the brink. It is partly a deterrent bluff strategy that forces the other party to chicken out and give up resistance (Jeong, 2016; Gate, 2011, p. 240; Goldman, 1991, p. 83; Coburn, 2012). The Negotiating Process Stages:
There is no general agreement on the major steps and stages of international negotiation for the reason that international negotiation differs according to the nature of the negotiating files, issues and fields.
These are the most prominent classifications of the negotiation process and stages: The First Notion:
1- The stage of information gathering.
2- The stage of submitting information.
3- The stage of proposals exchange.
4- The initial agreement on the general framework of the proposals.
5- In case of problems, this would turn into the stage of reservation and rejection or the dissolution of the negotiations. In case of acceptance, the negotiations move to the penultimate stage which is the stage of finalization and final revision.
6- The final agreement. The Second Notion:
1- Identifying and diagnosing the negotiating issue.
2- Creating the climate for negotiation.
3- The acceptance of negotiations by the concerned parties.
4- Preparing the actual negotiating process.
5- Starting the negotiations sessions.
6- Reaching a final agreement. The Third Notion:
1- Pre-Negotiation: Agreeing about the necessity for negotiation and the setting of negotiation agenda including the venue, the timing and the size of delegations.
2- Conceptualization: Framing the key issues and major aspects of the negotiation.
3- Setting the Details: Discussing key issues, solving the problems and completing the agreement.
4- Follow-Up: Since the success of negotiating an agreement is not limited to its signing, but it extends to its implementation, the negotiating doors must be kept open even after the accomplishment of the agreement, and this is in order to follow up the implementation of the agreement and to be prepared for any review or renegotiation imposed by changes in circumstances.
The Fourth Notion:
1- Preparation and Planning: Identifying the issue subject to negotiation and setting the purpose for this negotiation and its frame.
2- Determination of Ground Rules: Defining the negotiation rules, limits and procedures.
3- Clarification and Justification: Exploring and establishing the needs and demands.
4- Bargaining and Problem Solving: Settle differences and agree on ways to meet the demands and needs.
5- Closure and Implementation: Signing and approving the final agreement and proceeding to follow up the measures and conditions for its implementation (Berridge, 2015, pp. 25-98, Watershed Associates, 2020; Negotiation Experts, 2019). Despite the above-mentioned minor and partial dissimilarities, international negotiations mostly take the following path:
- Following the states parties acceptance to enter into negotiations on a specific negotiating issue, the negotiating framework is determined and negotiation could be undertaken in oral or in written notes or through mediation, whether collective mediation; for instance a group of experts, or individual mediation; to be exact a person known for his/her weight and mastery of the matter, or a country that has weight and credibility or moral authority over the conflicting parties. Mediation could also be conducted by an organization renamed for its international and regional prestige.
In this framework, the mediator is an active neutral and confident participant in the negotiations who has broad rights and specific tasks. The mediator can lead negotiations and follow them from start to finish and is able to make suggestions and recommendations. On this subject, mediation and arbitration should not be confused, as contrary to mediators whose judgments in the negotiating process are not legally binding, the conflicting parties are committed to accept the arbitrators' decisions (Shamir & Kutner, 2003, pp. 1-51).
Besides mediation, international negotiations can be preceded or interspersed by third-party friendly efforts aimed at calming the situation and reducing tensions. These efforts are called good offices and are considered as attempts to facilitate and strengthen the rapprochement between conflicting parties.
In certain cases, good offices pave the way for the acceptance of certain mediation and, through good offices; proposals are presented to the negotiating parties although the proposals linked to good offices are generally non-mandatory (Grant & Barker, 2009, pp. 247-248).
- After setting the negotiation framework, the parties agree on the venue and the date of the negotiations, after which each party prepares the documents related to the demands, needs, points of convergence and differences.
- Afterwards, the outline of the agenda is determined according to the negotiation rounds and the needs of the parties. Specialized technical committees shall be appointed to oversee and implement the decisions and recommendations of the negotiation rounds. Negotiations shall continue until a joint statement or document containing the terms and conditions of the agreement is reached in preparation for a more comprehensive and detailed agreement, namely, the final and formal agreement. In this context, international negotiation is subject to the principle of the absolute will of the states. That is why the negotiation process can be interrupted and ceased, although, negotiations can be resumed in other conditions, either by returning to the starting point and resuming negotiation of all the fields and files or resuming negotiation from where negotiations rounds stopped. This corresponds to the process of withdrawal in international negotiation, which can take two basic forms; (i) withdrawal from the rounds and items that are subject to disagreement, or (ii) withdrawal from the negotiation altogether (Lutz, Venter, & Dean, 2019, p. 223). RESULTS
This study has reached a set of the following major results:
- International negotiation is a field related to various disciplines of knowledge and numerous sectorial domains.
- International negotiation takes several forms that differ according to the different ways it is performed, its nature and the nature of its parties, the number of actors involved in it, its tools, means and outcomes.
- International negotiation is a voluntary option linked to the will and legal authority of states emanating from national sovereignty and its course is subject to a set of material and non-material considerations, which makes its results unknown in advance.
- International negotiation is based on a set of fundamental pillars linked to the negotiating issue, parties, objective, information, and authority/power.
- The success of the negotiation process is linked to the pre-negotiation stage, the progress of the negotiating course, and the post-negotiation phase.
- The success of the negotiating process requires the goodwill, building bridges of trust between the concerned parties, good selection of time frames, the mastering of negotiation files, the good management of negotiating rounds, the effectiveness and proficiency of negotiators.
- The strategies used in negotiation apply multiple mechanisms and measures, including interactive, cooperative, integrative, competitive, proactive, deterrent, obstructive, penetrative, destructive, tiring and deceptive.
- The stages of the negotiating process, and despite their differences from one issue to another and from one file to another, generally share their transition from the stage of collecting data and parties gathering, to the stage of identifying points of tension and disagreement, then the phase of proposing alternatives and solutions, until the stage of the mutual agreement, and eventually, the stage of officializing and ratifying the final agreement.
- Ultimately, assembling the previously mentioned parts, according to the steps of applying the inductive approach, leads to a holistic framework called the phenomenon of international negotiation, which is an international behavior that includes a set of components comprising a range of characteristics, rules, norms, types, foundations, strategies, and stages.
CONCLUSION
The previously made interpretation on the subject of international negotiation explained the most significant conceptual frameworks related to international negotiation and would certainly serves as a beacon light for students and researchers who seek to study particular practical models of international negotiation. Undeniably, it is accurate to conclude that the reality and future of international negotiation depends on the reality and future of international relations. In this framework, the relationships between international relations, foreign policy, diplomacy and international negotiation are whole-part relations. International relations are the whole and foreign policy is the part as foreign policy is a significant component of international relations. Diplomacy is part of foreign policy since it is the tool for implementing foreign policy orientations and choices and is one of the outputs of the state's foreign policy process. In turn, international negotiation is
part of diplomacy seeing that international negotiation is the core of the diplomatic function and is one of its central instruments.
In this context, international negotiation is closely related to the development of diplomacy, which is retreating day after day from traditional practices and heading towards new and modern instruments and types similar to digital diplomacy that have caused a fundamental shift in traditional diplomatic behavior, and therefore, the terms, strategies and course of international negotiation will certainly evolve and change to keep pace with this change and evolution in the diplomatic act (Barston, 2019, pp. 95-118).
The reality and future of international negotiation is also related to the reality and future of the phenomena of conflict and cooperation in international relations. The increase and decline of international negotiation in international relations is linked to the possibility of establishing an international system based on peaceful coexistence, unified standards, homogeneous values and common principles and goals. This liberal idealistic approach is linked to the phenomena of globalism and globalization in international relations and is recently witnessing a noticeable decline, in particular, because of the current international relations are facing a struggle for power and global leadership related to the path of shift of power in international relations from West to East, which will inevitably lead to values and trade conflicts, as well as stiff clashes over the division of areas of influence between the world powers (Nye, 2011, pp. 153-206). The reality and future of international negotiation is also linked to the transformation of international relations in terms of actors and issues. The emergence of actors above the state and under the state and transiting the state in the current international interactions that have become a threat to the state as a central entity in international relations, will lead to a strong engagement of non-state actors in international negotiation. On the other hand, the shift in international relations issues from high politics concerns which are directly linked to the military domain to the fields of low politics matters such as economic, commercial, societal, cultural and value issues along with new security threats matters such as migration, refugees, drug trafficking, environment and cyber issues, is currently leading to new shifts in international negotiation's topics and issues (Lawson, 2017, pp. 154-178).
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Information about the author Информация об авторе
Ph.D in Politics and International Доктор политических наук,
Relations, Professor профессор
Sofiane Sekhri Софиан Сахри
University of Algiers -3- Ibrahim Sultan Университет Алжира 3 им.
Cheibout Ибрагима Султана Шийбута
Algiers, Algeria г. Алжир, Алжир
sofiane.sekhri@aol.co.uk sofiane.sekhri@aol.co.uk
Conflicts of Interest Disclosure: The author declares Conflicts of Interest Disclosure.
Раскрытие информации о конфликте интересов: Автор заявляет об отсутствии конфликта интересов.
