CC BY
26Dr. Manouchehr Moshtagh Khorasani
and
Hessamoddin Shafeian
EWAZ: A CENTER OF GUNMAKING IN IRAN
Persian manuscripts on firearms reveal valuable information on casting bronze cannons, using rockets in warfare, the function of howitzers, mortars and cannons, cannon formation, etc. The barrels of Persian muskets show a variety of beautiful patterns of welded steel. But there are almost no period Persian manuscripts which report about the making of these beautiful pattern welded steel barrels and also their corresponding names in Persian. There is one Persian manuscript titled Tarix-e Delgosa-ye Ewaz (The Delightful History of Ewaz) which provides valuable information on some types of welded steel patterns. The following article deals with the chapter on firearms in the mentioned manuscript.
Key words: Persian guns, Persian muskets, pattern, welded steel, crucible steel, patterned crucible steel, patterns of welded steel on barrels, Ewaz as gunmaking center, gun-making factories.
1) Introduction
There are many Persian manuscripts on the casting and production of firearms, using them in battlefields and their corresponding transportation. These manuscripts include among others:
a) An untitled Safavid manuscript on casting bronze cannons: This is the earliest known Persian manuscript on firearms from the Safavid period and deals with casting bronze cannons. This manuscript is kept in the Central Library of the
University of Tehran with the number 2085. The end of the manuscript is signed with the inscriptions Kamtarin bande-ye dargah Soleyman qurci-ye mezraq (the Lowest Servant of the Court, Soleyman who holds and takes care of a short spear [for the king]). Thus it can be assumed that it is written by Soleyman. The manuscript consists of 51 pages and seventeen drawings.
b) Resalei dar Fesang [Treatise on Rockets]: This manuscript is written by Mohammad Reza Tabrizi who was a mohandesbasi (head of engineering units). The manuscript was written in 1256 Hegira, which is 1840 C.E. This manuscript is a combination of a translation of two different Congreve manuscripts and the writer translates some parts directly and some parts are written and added by Mohammad Reza Tabrizi himself as he says that he was under the impression that Congreve did not explain clearly and wanted to hide important aspects. It has ten plates. Although the paintings resemble the paintings of Congreve books on rockets, all soldiers in Tabrizi's book are depicted with Qajar -period uniforms of the Persian army holding the Iranian flag of the lion and the sun. The enemy is shown holding the Ottoman flag and wearing Ottoman uniforms. The manuscript consists of 99 pages.
c) Resale-ye Qurxane [Treatise on Arsenal]: It is written by Mohammad Baqer Tabrizi in 1257 Hijra (1841 C.E.). This manuscript is kept in the National Library of Iran with the number 1766. The first part consists of several chapters about the gunnery tools for cannons . This part offers a detailed account about how cannons were loaded and shot. Additionally, it provides information about how gunnery tools were made and how they functioned. It also provides information on mortars and howitzers. The second part is about the rockets and their accessories. This part offers valuable information about war rockets and how they were shot. Finally, the third part is about artificial fireworks that were used during celebrations. The manuscript has 196 pages and 50 plates.
d) Majmueye Qavae'd-e Nezam (Collection of Military Regulations): This manuscript has the number 2772 and was written by an unknown author by the order of Nassereldin Sah Qajar in Ramezan 1268 (June 1852 C.E.). This manuscript has many pictures and describes in detail different marching and formation regula-
tions for the troops. It consists of 52 pages (including the jacket) and has 35 drawings.
e) Resale-ye Elm-e Masqe Tupxane (Manuscript on Artillery Training): It was written by Mirza Zaky Mazandarani Karsis with the handwriting of Mohammad Ali ben Abdollah al Tehrani. The manuscript is dated 1270 Hijra (1853-1854 C.E.). It is kept in the National Library with the number 782156. The manuscript has 58 text pages and 14 pages at the end of the manuscript dedicated to drawings about the formation of cannons.
f) Soal va Javab dar Elm-e Tupxane (Questions and Answers about the Science of Artillery): It was written by Najafqoli. It was handwritten by Abdolhos-seyn Mohammad Rafi' in Tabriz in 22 Moharram 1296 Hijra (15 January 1879 C.E.). The code of the manuscript is 725 F and is kept in the National Library of Iran. The manuscript was written for the crown prince Mozaffareldin Sah Qajar and was used an instructional manual to teach him the science of artillery. The book consists of 120 questions and 98 pages and has no drawings.
g) Tupxane va Golule-ye An (Artillery and its Projectiles): It was written by Najafqoli Xan (Nayeb Ajudan) and Petros Xan (Sarhang) and handwritten by Enayatollah. The book was written in Tabriz 1296 Hijra (1879 C.E.) and dedicated to Mozaffareldin Mirza. The book is kept with the number 1823 in the National Library of Iran. The book was originally in Russian and translated into Persian by the order of the crown prince Mozaffareldin Mirza. The authors were both artillery officers. The book is not merely a translation but the authors annotated it and added their own parts. They state in the beginning pages of the manuscript that the original manuscript had one introduction and twenty two chapters. The manuscript has 165 pages and no drawings.
h) Tup-e Kuhi (Field Artillery): It was written by an unknown author in 13th century Hijra (19 century C.E.). This seems to be a translation of a European manuscript. This book is kept in the National Library of Iran with the number 5-11015. The manuscript describes in detail a breech-loading cannon. It has thirty eight pages and twenty drawings.
i) TarzeTuphaye Mitrayuze Hackis (Usage of Hotchkiss Machine Gun): This manuscript with the number of 3189 was written in the late 19 century. Note
that mitrayuz means "slug shots". This manuscript consists of 85 pages and has no drawings.
j) Sarh-e Lavazem-e Jangi az Exteraat-e Hackis [Description of War Equipment of Hotchkiss Inventions]: This is a Qajar -period manuscript on the usage of the hotchkiss machine gun and is from the 13 century hijra (19 century CE)The manuscript code is 887. The manuscript has seventy two pages and no drawings.
k) Elm-e Tupxane (Science of Artillery): It is a Qajar period manuscript about cannons, mortars and howitzers. The manuscript code is 417. The manuscript has 91 pages and no drawings. It was written in Rabi II 1271 Hijra (January 1855 C.E.).
l) Qanun-e Nezamiye (Military Regulations): It is a Qajar period manuscript. The manuscript has the number 2979. The manuscript has fifty pages.
The next manuscript which has a chapter on firearms is Tarix-e Delgosa-ye Ewaz (The Delightful History of Ewaz). This article deals with this manuscript.
2) Persian manuscripts on crucible steel patterns
Before describing the chapter on firearms Tarix-e Delgosa-ye Ewaz (The Delightful History of Ewaz) and the patterns of welded steel on barrels, a short review on patterned crucible steel patterns is given. Patterned crucible steel was mainly used to make swords, knives and armor in Persia. There are a number of Persian manuscripts on patterned crucible steel making. These manuscripts offer valuable information on how to make crucible steel and although some of the old terms related to different types of iron and steel do not correspond to modern terminology regarding iron and steel, they nevertheless offer valuable information on the components of the crucible steel. Further, the added minerals and plants to the crucible are discussed in the manuscripts. Crucible steel, which is also called "true damascus steel" or "pulad" is a type of an ultra high carbon steel with a carbon content of 1-2.1% that has been heated until completely or partially molten and then left to slowly cool down. Note that the used term in Persian manuscripts to refer to this type of steel is pulad-e johardar (jewelled steel) (see Moshtagh Khorasani 2010). The so-called Damascus steel or watered steel is made of crucible steel, but in
western terminology this can be misleading because the term Damascus steel is used to refer to both "patterned crucible steel" and "patterned welded steel", but not all steel types produced in crucible are patterned. Therefore, the suggestion is made to refer to patterned crucible steel as "crucible damascus steel" with a lower case "d" in damascus (see Feuerbach, 2012). The earliest evidence of crucible steel production dates back to the 3rd century CE and it is believed that the traditional manufacture and technology died in the 1800's (see Feuerbach, 2012). To make crucible steel, the steelmakers placed iron bloom or scrap iron, which were rich in iron, together with charcoal, plant matter, or cast iron which were rich in carbon into a crucible and then heated it. This resulted in the diffusion of carbon into the iron, creating steel. One should note also that during the process the melting point is lowered resulting in the steel becoming liquid for a while. The resulting steel ingot is relatively homogeneous (see Feuerbach, 2012). The outcome is basically slag-free lump of steel with the shape of the internal cavity of the crucible. These ingots have different carbon contents, minor and trace elements, and microstructures. These ingots were heated to cherry red color temperature and then forged into swords, axes, scissors, shields, armor plates and a number of other items. Many of period Persian manuscripts describe different patterns of patterned crucible steel such as Noruzname [Book of Noruz] attributed Omar ben Ebrâhim Xayyâm-e Neysâburi, which was probably written in 495 Hijra (1102 C.E.). This manuscript describes the following terms: gohar j&jS (pattern of crucible steel) (Xayyâm-e Neysâburi, 2003, p. 56), gohar-e hamvar jlj-^ j^jS (leveled pattern) (Xayyâm-e Neysâburi (Xayyâm-e Neysâburi, 2003, p. 55), kalaqi (white
traces aligned consecutively close to the back of the blade, dombal J^ and these white traces appear as silver) (Xayyâm-e Neysâburi, 2003/1382, p. 55, lolo jj (a type of pattern in a crucible steel blade in which round spheres that resemble pearls) (Xayyâm-e Neysâburi, 2003, p. 56), matn a" (background color of the crucible steel) (Xayyâm-e Neysâburi, 2003/1382, p. 55), mosattab (a type of crucible steel pattern of yamani sword), payha-ye murce ^-jj* ¡shèi (a type of pattern of crucible steel blade that looks like blazing ants' feet) (Xayyâm-e Neysâburi, 2003, p. 56) and sade ^ (a type of pattern of crucible steel blade that is simple and has faint traces of a fuller (Xayyâm-e Neysâburi, 2003, p. 56).
Another manuscript is the 13th-century Tansuxname [The Book of Minerals] written by Xaje Nasireldin Tusi. This manuscript discusses the following rohina U^jj (a kind of balarak ^j^? [watered steel] which has big watered steel pattern as if someone painted the pattern on the blade), balarak-e jahaki ^j^? (a type of balarak ^j^? attributed to Jahak ^W-, balarak-e sahi ^a^ ^j^? (king's balarak/royal balarak; a type of balarak ^j^?) and rohina U^jj (a kind of balarak ^j^? [watered steel] which has big watered steel pattern as if someone painted the pattern on the blade) (Nasireldin Tusi, 1574/982 Hijra:[101]).
Another 12th-century manuscript is Javahername-ye Nezami by Johari Nezam which provides the following patterns such as balarak ^j^?, balarak-e sahi ^j^?, banafsrang ^jj^i? (violet-colored; the color of the best type of balarak ^j^? steel; sefid mosalsal J^A^ a?^ (a type of watered steel with a johar jAj?- with successive white [traces]; a pattern of balarak ^j^? steel), siyahrang ^j^ (black-colored; it is considered the best color of balarak ^j^? steel (Johari Nezami, 2004, pp. 327-329) and bum fj? (background color of crucible steel pattern (Johari Nezami, 2004, p. 331).
The 15th century Goharname [Book of Jewels] by Mohammad ben Mansur offers also interesting terminology regarding the terms describing the crucible steel such as balarak-e hendi ^aja ^j^j, balarak-e sahi ^a^ ^j^? (king's balarak/royal balarak), bigohar jAjS (without watered steel pattern; this refers to the areas where the crucible steel pattern is not visible either due to the bad quality of the blade or poor etching), kasir al-johar jAj^IjjjS (full of watered steel pattern), rohina U?ajj (a type of balarak ^j^? and a steel pattern with traces that are so big as if one had painted them with fingers) and siyahfam ^UsU^ (blackish, black-colored; this refers to the parts of the watered steel pattern that are blackish and hence where the pattern is not visible due to the bad quality of the blade or poor etching) (Mansur, 1975, pp. 286-287).
Next to different ancient manuals, many researchers in early modern and modern times made classifications of crucible steel as well based on the travel accounts of contemporary Europeans. Some of these patterns are also mentioned in Qajar-period documents too. During the mid-19th century C.E., Anosov was the first person to make a modern classification of different types of crucible steel.
Zeller and Rohrer say that there are ten sorts of Persian watered steel, though some of the patterns are not very common. Additionally, they mention that Iranians make this distinction based on the pattern and color [see Zeller and Rohrer, 1955). As it was shown above old Persian manuscripts also distinguish the quality of crucible steel blades based on their pattern and color. Nevertheless, Zeller and Rohrer further state that, for people who are not from the region, a classification of ten different sorts of watered steel is very difficult; therefore, they propose a classification based on the pattern only. They also say that their classification is partially in accordance with the Iranian classification. The following types are distinguished in different sources:
a) Woodgrain or mottled pattern: This pattern is known as pulad-e johardar-e mosabak in Persian [see (20)] which means watered steel with a net pattern (see Moshtagh Khorasani, 2008). This type of pattern looks like woodgrain. Woodgrain pattern is characterized by irregularity in the patterns that appear both lengthwise and crosswise along the blade. This pattern can further be divided into kara khora-san (see Figiel, 1991), known as in qaraxorasani in Persian (see Modarresi & Safavi Mobarhen, 1991) and kara taban (see Figiel, 1991). Kara khorasan (black watered steel from Khorasan) has much finer-grained dendrites but the same black color, whereas kara taban is a deep blue-black with bold, silvery dendrites (see Rawson, 1967). Another pattern of this category is known as bidr or qum which means gravel representing unbroken ondulating grapevine meandering the length of the blade (see Rawson, 1967).
Picture 1: A close-up of a crucible steel blade of a Persian samsir from the Zand period with a woodgrain pattern.
b) Ladder pattern: The ladder pattern is considered as a type of woodgrain or mottled pattern [see (14)]. Another pattern is known as kirk nardeban meaning "40 steps or rungs". Nardeban means "ladder," and this pattern is characterized by transversely crossways-oriented patterns. These are mechanically created distortions of the crystalline pattern, called "steps" [see (14)]. This pattern is also known as Jacob's ladder. The distance between each step is the same; the steps occur at regular intervals of approximately 2.5-5 cm (see Figiel, 1991). The number of steps range from 20 to 50 per side. This pattern is known as pulad-e johardar-e qerq nardeban in Persian meaning "watered steel with ladder pattern" which is a type of crucible steel with ladder pattern; known as forty ladder rungs (see Romanowsky, 1967). This pattern is also called ladder of Mohammad and is also known as cehlband (forty steps or rungs) in Persian pattern (Moshtagh Khorasani, 2010). Each step consists of an even denser, curvilinear orientation of the crystalline structure with the curvature or convexity being directed from the cutting edge of the blade to its back surface over the length of the blade on both sides. There are almost forty rungs along the length of the blade, therefore, the pattern has been called "the forty steps." Another important factor is that the orientation of the "steps" is staggered from one side to the other, meaning that the steps or "rungs" of the ladder are positioned midway between two steps on the opposite side. A parallel positioning of steps would cause flaws and weakness alongside the blade as these steps were created mechanically, using a blunt chisel. The chisel was hammered lightly into superficial layers of the hot metal at an upward angle, directed toward the back edge of the blade, pushing layers of crystals upward. The quality of this pattern varies in some cases. In some instances, the tightness of crystal layers is very visible and regular, whereas they appear erratic in other examples. There is also the possibility of naturally occurring crystalline orientations (see Figiel, 1991).
Picture 2: A close-up of a crucible steel blade of a Persian samsir from the Safavid period with a ladder pattern.
c) Rose pattern: Another pattern is called the "rose" or circle pattern and is considered as a type of woodgrain or mottled pattern (see Figiel, 1991). The rose is positioned in the middle of the blade halfway between the cutting edge and the back edge. Just as with kirk nardeban, the roses are placed at regular intervals on the surface of the blade by using a blunt-edged chisel, making a semicircular row of indentations at both sides of the blade. Additional chiseled indentations are applied within the central portion of the circular site. The technique creates a variegated pattern, resembling concentric layers like the petals of a rose (see Figiel, 1991).
Picture 3: A close-up of a crucible steel blade of a Persian samsir from the Zand period with a rose pattern.
d) Water pattern: This pattern consists of straight lines which becoming progressively shorter and they are combined with curved lines (see Rawson, 1967).
Picture 4: A close-up of a crucible steel blade of a Persian samsir from the Qajar period with a water pattern.
e) Wave pattern: This pattern is known as begami, which represents deep waves running down the length of the blade (see Moshtagh Khorasani, 2010). This pattern is also described as increasing curved lines and broken lines and points (see Sachse, 1993). This pattern is called pulad-e mavvaj or pulad-e mojdar in Persian which means waved steel (see Romanowsky, 1967).
Picture 5: A close-up of a crucible steel blade of a Persian straight samsir from the Qajar period with a wave pattern.
f) Striped pattern: This pattern called sham consists of lines appearing lengthwise
along the blade. This pattern is known as sham (see Rawson, 1967). This pattern is
called Syrian which is the least esteemed consisting of only slightly undulating
stripes running down the length of the blade (see Moshtagh Khorasani, 2010). This
pattern is called pulad-e johardar-e xati in Persian which means lined watered steel
(Romanowsky, 1967). This is a type of crucible steel with lined pattern.
Picture 6: A close-up of a crucible steel blade of a Persian samsir from the period of Fath Ali Sah Qajar with a striped pattern.
As mentioned before, pattern-welded steel was another method that was used to make gun barrels. During this process several metal pieces of differing composition are forge-welded together and twisted and manipulated to form a pattern. Steel plates forged in this manner often display bands of slightly different patterning along their entire length. These bands can be highlighted for cosmetic purposes by proper polishing or acid etching. Therefore, by referring to steel pattern, the book Tarix-e Delgosa-ye Ewaz (The Delightful History of Ewaz) describes pattern-welded steel and not patterned crucible steel pattern.
3) Tarix-e Delgosa-ye Ewaz (The Delightful History of Ewaz)
Tarix-e Delgosa-ye Ewaz is a book dealing with the local history of Ewaz and was written in Persian by Mohammad Hadi Keramati (born in 1857 CE in Ewaz) who was from the influential and educated house of Keramati. When he was very young his family immigrated to Mumbai, India to work for his father's business (p6). There, although living in abroad, he still managed to gain deep knowledge in Arabic and Persian literature, world and Islamic countries' history as well as calligraphy skills. Later in his senility after paying a pilgrimage to Mecca, he isolated himself in Ewaz, his birthplace, to write a history of this city in 1925 (Keramati, 1992, p. 7). Mohammad Ebrahim Bastani Parizi a prominent historian of local regions of Iran has described Tarix-e Delgosa-ye Ewaz as a unique book for studying the history of Iranian military. Bastani Parizi writes "For us to read about the details of Persia-Russian wars of Fath Ali Shah Qajar time or the wars on Herat (note that Herat was formerly and historically an Iranian city, now a major city in East of Afghanistan after British involvement in internal matters of 19th century Qajar Iran) is possible to consult with the books such as Rozat-al Safaye Nasseri ( sj^U sU^lI) and Nasex-e Tavarix (¿jjIj^I as well as Russian, British and French documents [...] of the time, but if we wish to know about the weapon-making techniques of the Iranians of the time, a simple and short local history book about a remote and seemingly insignificant region of Iran [such as Tarix-e Delgosa-ye Ewaz] can be of tremendous help.[...] In this book one can find a whole chapter titled 'On Forging and Gun-making Factories' details how in this village of a couple of hundreds dwellings there was a cartel of sixteen gun-making factories". The importance of this manuscript becomes clear when one takes into account that the royal collection of Iranian handmade barrels kept in the Military Museum of Tehran, the Military Museum of Shiraz have the most intricate and beautiful pattern-welded barrels made in the world. Unfortunately none of the manuscripts above describe how pattern-welded barrels were made in Iran. Only the untitled Safavid manuscript on casting bronze cannons deals with the making of guns explicitly. But this deals with casting bronze cannons and not making pattern-welded barrels. But many barrels of Persian guns are made of pattern-welded steel as mentioned above. Unlike crucible damascus steel which has many descriptions
and terms for different patterns that can be extracted from period manuscripts, we have not been able to find any period manuscripts on terms describing different types of pattern-welded damascus steel. Only in 20th-century publications we find some related terms. These are tofang-e johari which means "guns with barrels made of pattern welded steel" (see Floor, 2003, p. 249) and the pattern-welded steel is called pulad-e masnu'i (artificial steel) in Persian (see Romanowsky, 1967/1346:79 and Ma'tufi, 1999, p. 724). Romanowsky (1967, p. 86) and Ma'tufi (1999, p. 724) distinguish between the following types of pulad-e masnu'i: a) pulad-e motabbaq (layered steel) and b) pulad-e pici (twisted steel). Further, Romanowsky (1967, p. 86) adds that pulad-e motabbaq (layered steel) is further divided into pulad-e motabbaq-e montazam (layered and ordered steel) and pulad-e motabbaq-e rangi (colored and layered steel) and b) pulad-e pici (twisted steel) is further divided into pulad-e pici-ye montazam (twisted and ordered steel) and pulad-e pici-ye rangi (twisted and colored steel). Romanowsky explains that pulad-e motabbaq is a type of pattern welded steel that has visible layers that are pressed together that have different colors and pulad-e rangi is a type of pattern welded steel that has white patterns/traces in dark background. Romanowsky (1967, p. 79) suggests that the reason for making pulad-e masnu'i was to imitate the beautiful patterns of pulad-e johardar (crucible steel) as pulad-e johardar was very expensive. Another reason was, of course, that pattern welded steel was used to make barrels as it could much better adapt to the expansion of the barrel during shooting in comparison to the crucible steel.
European travelers to Persia during that period report on the process. Chardin (1988, p. 271) reports on the firearms barrel-making process done by Persians. He says that they damask the barrels as they do the blades, but he does not differentiate between the process of making welded damascus steel and crucible damascus steel.
Floor (2003:251-2) quotes de Rochechouart, who reported on the process of gun barrel making in Iran. The report reveals the making of gun barrels, providing a good explanation of how this technology. De Rochecourt reports that the Persian smiths collected two old horseshoe irons and a certain quantity of small bits and pieces of ordinary iron. The total amounted to 15 sir [According to The Digital Lexicon of Dehxoda, satir is a weight measurement that means sir (garlic), and based
on weight measurements of Tabriz, satir is 15 methqal. According to Emam Sustari (1961, pp. 44-45), there were two different weights that were described as methqal during the Abbasid period. One of them was called methqal arabi (Arabian methqal), also called methqal shar'i, and the other one was called methqal Sei-rafi or methqal baqdadi. Methqal Arabi was equal to 4.265 grams, and methqal baqdadi was equal to 4.948 grams. methqal baqdadi was the weight measurement used in Iran. Therefore, 15 sir is exactly 1113.30 grams, a little bit over 1 kilo], which is almost 1 kg. He further documents how the smiths layered the iron in such a way so that the horse irons made up the exterior. The smiths placed the iron in the fire, and they heated it until it had almost reached the melting point. In the next step, they forged the iron on the anvil until all the pieces became one uniform, compact mass. The smiths repeated the forging process several times. Then, they drew out the metal until it became a bar of about 75 cm in length. They made 12 of these bars, attached them to one another, and put the entire billet into the forge. After heating the billet sufficiently, they took the mass out and forged and cut it wherever the various parts had blended. The smiths stretched and reduced the billet to the size and thickness of a finger and rounded the corners. The next step involved taking four of these strips and twisting them into spirals, extending them on an iron blade and beating and heating the mass until it was compact. Afterward, the smiths twisted a mold of this last strip and beat and heated it to obtain the welding, whereupon they withdrew the mold, polishing and smoothing the interior of the gun barrel. In the next stage, they polished the exterior, covering the surface with a mixture of two parts sulfur and one part salt, which were mixed into a water solution. The smiths put the coated barrel in a hot and humid place, such as the interior of a bath, for 24 hours. At the end of that period, they took the barrel out, and it was complete.
As the pictures of seven different barrels made of pattern-welded damascus steel show there are different varieties of pattern-welded damascus steel. But unfortunately no period Persian manuscript has been found up to now which could clearly shed light on how these patterns were called in Persian back then.
Pictures 7-13: Different patterns of welded steel on Persian gun barrels from the Military Museum of Tehran.
Tarix-e Delgosa-ye Ewaz (The Delightful History of Ewaz) provides some useful terminology such as johardar jlJ jAj?. (patterned), kol J^ (curved), dokol JSj^
(double-curved), pictab (turn-twisted), siyahtab ^ (black-twisted),
noqrekar j^ (silver-worked), tahnesan j^ (deeply inlaid), sade (plain) and samqal Unfortunately, the manuscript does not offer any drawings or
explanation for these terms. Before going into the chapter on gunmaking in the manuscript Tarix-e Delgosa-ye Ewaz (The Delightful History of Ewaz), a short history on the city of Ewaz is given.
4) The city of Ewaz
Ewaz is a city in Larestan County of Fars Province of Iran with a population of over twenty thousand people. Historically it is considered as a relatively dry city yet it enjoys a beautiful green scenery and abundance of birds and other animals (Keramati, 1992, pp. 44 and 51). Geographically, Ewaz is located in proximity of mountains and winding roads making it very difficult to access. Thus it could be naturally protected from thieves and bandits (Keramati, 1992, p. 45) especially when the central government was unable or unwilling to offer proper protection to the local people. Ewaz was home to a large religious minority population of Muslim Sunni of Shafi'i school as opposed to majority of Muslim Shia population of Iran (Keramati, 1992, p. 57). Many of Ewaz people, who were proficient in Arabic language used to work and live in other countries which had large Sunni populations, especially the Persian Gulf Arab states and even India (Keramati, 1992, p. 23). They had a long history of trade with these countries especially trades in which they sold their muskets to eager customers. However they kept their bonds with Iran, wrote about Iran, embraced Persian Constitutional Revolution and a large portion of them returned to Ewaz to live and engage in philanthropic and scholarly activities such as school construction.
Ewaz went through numerous military engagements for different reasons such as land disputes with neighbor villages and religious quarrels. During the Iranian Zand dynasty and early Qajar era, under the patronage of a local ruler called "Haji Amir" and his predecessors, steel forging and especially gun-making flourished in Ewaz as a premium business of people. The business model they followed resembled a conglomerate of many gun making related factories and workshops that all people of the village united in a tiny space attempt to satisfy the needs of each oth-
ers' businesses (Keramati, 1992, pp. 90-91). Another special feature of the city of Ewaz was its distinguished gunners, who, irrespective of their age, were agile, brave and skilled gunners (Keramati, 1992, p. 92).
5) Gun-making Factories
The book Tarix-e Delgosa-ye Ewaz (The Delightful History of Ewaz) provides a very informative list of gun-making factories. Keramati (1992, pp. 92-96) mentions the gun-making factories of Ewaz are as follows:
a) Factory of Mir Mohammad Haji Mir
b) Factory of Mir Hossein Haji Mir
c) Factory of Mir Abdulvahed Mir Hossein
d) Factory of Mir Haji Ahmad Haji Mir
e) Factory of Mir Hamzeh
f) Factory of Mir Taqi
g) Factory of Mir Najma
h) Factory of Mir Esma'il
i) Factory of Mir Jafar
j) Factory of Haji Abdurrahman Mir Mohammad Sahmir
k) Factory of Mir Abdullah Mir Hamzeh
l) Factory of Mir Rasula Mir Hamzeh
m) Factory of Mir Ahmad Amina
n) Factory of Mir Abdurrahman Mir Jafar
o) Factory of Mir Mohammad Said Mir Ahmad Amina
p) Factory of Mir Mohammad Said Haji Abdurrahman"
Keramati continues: "In these factories in addition to the masters whose name is on the factory, simple gun barrels (mil-e lule ^Jj J-*) are produced in large ovens. In addition to that oven, they were equipped with other machineries to polish and imprint the gun barrels and ornament the accessories. Many people were involved in these activities which included polishing (barquzan jjj&j?), part assem-bling(gusebandi s4? ^j^), sight adjustment (nazarbandi s4?j^j), trigger making, painting, silversmithing, stock making, barrel strap placement (toqbandi s4? jj^), match cord knitting (fatilepici gunpowder making, saddle making, bullet
casting (golulerizi sjjj and charcoal making. These workshops cooperated with factories and were owned by all people of Ewaz and an indicator of their wealth. Therefore, the ovens and smiths [related to gun making industry] played the driving force in advancing the economy of the city as mentioned by the Holy Qur'an:
"And We have given (to them) iron (which has great strength and) wherein is (material for) violent warfare and for many (other) uses for people" (Al-Hadid, Sura 57, verse 25, al-Quran, 2003, p. 624).
At those times, the people of Ewaz were succulently self-sufficient in their livelihoods without any dependence on foreigners, and could perfectly protect their homelands from potential enemies by their unity, Islamic mettle and bravery which could deeply shake the enemy's heart. Their caravans could always transport safely in the regions of Fars and Isfahan provinces and keep their business traffic unharmed and no bandit or thieve had the courage to encroach the Ewazian passengers. In short, the gun-making industry of Ewaz has reached the apex of perfection in its quality. From neighbor and far regions, Persian-speakers and Turkish-speakers, many traders used to travel to Ewaz to sell their products and purchase muskets and iron tools in return. There were many types of guns for example:
johardar jIj (patterned), kol J^ (curved), dokol J^jJ (double-curved), pictab (turn-twisted), siyahtab m^ ^ (black-twisted), noqrekar j^ oj^j (silver-worked), tahnesan j^j (deeply inlaid), sade (plain) and samqal Ji^.
Damuscus steel patterned (johari sjAj?) muskets crafted by Mir Haji were very beautiful and distinguished and in fact enjoyed higher quality than the Rumi (Ottoman) counterparts. He used silver barrel straps (bast and gold-inlaid embellishments along with Western flintlocks."
Note that part of the results of European innovation and military advising in Qajar-period Iran was the import of flintlocks. In the Qajar period (1794-1925 C.E.), the imported flintlocks marked with E.I.C. (East India Company) were either called in Persian caxmaq-e engirizi (English flintlock) or caxmaq-e farangi (European flintlock) (see Tahvildar Esfahani, 1964, p. 108). Tahvildar Esfahani adds the craftsman who made flintlock mechanism was called caxmaqsaz (flintlock maker). There used to be many members in this guild in the past when the stone flintlock
was very common but the European or foreign flintlock still quite rare. They brought very good caxmaqha-ye engirizi (English flintlocks), each cost 15,000 dinar. During the reign of the "king of kings", Ostad Mohammad Esfahani Cax-maqsaz sold each [flintlock] for three tuman [360 tuman was a respectable annual salary for a young man at the end of the 19th century]. It was assumed in Europe that each individual part of the flintlock was made by a different guild, and that experienced people performed the quenching of the qorxoloq (trigger-guard) and the shooting mechanism. However, in Esfahan, Ostad Mohammad did everything on his own and other masters did the same as well. Years ago, the majority of flintlock makers of Esfahan were brought to Tehran. Some decided on their own to go to Xorasan, Kordestan, and Fars. A few remained in Esfahan and if the demand were there, they could make good flintlocks that are liked in all parts of Iran. There were also local flintlockmakers such as Ostad Mohammad, were other great flintlock makers. such as Ali, indicated in the mark amal-e Ali (the work of Ali) on a flintlock mechanism for a gun with a pattern-welded barrel made by Hosseyn Molla, and Sar Ali written in the expression amal-e Sar Ali (the work of Sar Ali) on a flintlock attributed to the Qajar period that is kept in the Military Museum of Tehran. These guns could be used effectively by Persian soldiers.
Keramati adds: "Variety of these muskets was sold in Mascat (the capital of current day Oman, south of Ewaz), Balouchestan (a region now shared by Iran and Pakistan, east of Ewaz) and other ports. During Arab's reign, some of the Ewazian masters were making muskets in Mascat and Bandar Abbas (a seaport and capital of Hormozgan Province on the southern coast of Iran), even in the era of Karim Khan of Zand (r. 1750-1779), the powerful and popular ruler of Iran and the founder of Zand dynasty whose capital was Shiraz (Fars province of Iran, whose distance to Ewaz is only about 360 kilometers), some Ewazian musket makers were sent to Shiraz by Nasser Khan Lari (the powerful and ambitious ruler of Larestan, before and during Karim Khan Zand reign, who was a distinguished warrior fighting with musket with equitation skills). Flintlock muskets had the effective range of 7001000 feet or even beyond. The price of these muskets ranged from 10 to 20 qirans (at those times one Iranian qiran was exchanged for about 10 pences.) and damascus welded steel types (no'e johardar jIajAj^ £ji) were priced between 30 and 40
qirans. On those prosperous days in which the city witnessed intensive musket trades, from midnight to sunset, there were uninterrupted roar of musket shootings and hammering and malleting all over the Ewaz, as if a war was waged at the village, and the subject of all conversations was always guns and the crafting quality of the gun-making masters.
6) Inscriptions on gun barrels
The gun trade of Ewaz has started in this environment, along with sending some natives to the markets of the ports such as Mascat and buying Swiss irons, laquers and Indigo dyes which was mutually beneficial for both parties, especially Ewazians who could live affluently but not squander in their homes. This situation lasted for about a hundred years until 1853. After that period heavy imports from western countries ruined the old native industry and it declined to near total disappearance. While making muskets, the Ewazian masters used to engrave the barrels with Quranic verses and adequate Persian poems and further decorate them with figurative patterns. One instance of such verses are Nasron Min Allahi Wa Fathon Qareeb vyj5 j ^ j^j (Help from God and early victory) which is verse 13 of the sura al-Saff > '^I (Formations; this is the 61 sura of the holy Qur'an that consists of 14 verses. Another example is Enna Fatahna Lakka Fathan Mobina I-ij?* Ii^ia Ijl (WE HAVE GIVEN you a splendent victory). The latter inscription is the first verse of the sura al-Fath ¿^I (victory) which is the 48 sura of the holy Qur'an that consists of 18 verses (see al-Qur'an, 1993, p. 439). They also used Persian poems used on the barrels. Two examples of poems are as follows: In xosqafa be hengam jadal ejdehadam ast / hengam razm qatel har babr va zeyqam ast
(This beautiful [gun] fights like a dragon in time of war// slayer of every tiger and lion)
Adov qafel maso be ruze nabard ke in amd va godaz / az rah kin kosande-ye Sohrab va Rostam ast
•"N. -I^J.-JJMIj^jo 'n^Oj^oIjjl jl^jAACo^JjjjjjjJj-^Jal^jJc
(O enemy, don't be heedless for this furious fire// is the killer of [champions such as] Rostam and Sohrab)
Another Persian poem used by Ewaz gunmakers was the following: Hazar kon ey adov az man ke atas dar dahan daram nadaram bak az dosman ke ahan bar dahan daram fjl' jA jic^l j<j^
"Keep away from me oh the enemy as I have fire in my mouth/ I am not afraid of the enemy as I have the iron in my mouth".
Note that a Persian flintlock musket from the 18th century kept in the Military Museum of Tehran with the punched maker's mark Amal-e Haj Mostafa ^iL^^Ujac. [The work of Haj Mostafa] has the same inscription as indicated above. Another 18th-century flintlock musket with the same inscription on the barrel which is kept in the Military Museum of Tehran has the the punched maker's mark reads Amal-e Mir Hosseyn jj^j^J^c (The work of Mir Hosseyn). There is a percussion-cap musket with the same inscription on the breech of the barrel in the Military Museum of Tehran with the museum inventory number 983. The barrel of this musket is from the Zand period (dated 1195 Hijra/1781 C.E.). The musket belonged to a Zand ruler during the era of Sadeq Xan Zand who ruled from 11931196 Hijra (1779-1782 C.E.). Later on it was mounted with a British percussion cap lock during the Qajar period. The barrel has the maker's mark "Amal-e Seyyed Mohammad Uujc (the work of Seyyed Mohammad)", the owner's mark "Saheb Mohammad Ali . . . Jc ,(The owner Mohammad Ali . . .)" and on the breech of the barrel, there is another owner's mark written in raised gold-inlaid inscriptions that reads: "Saheb Mohammad Hasan Xan Zand 1195 ^^AijjU. , u^rtj^, (The owner Mohammad Hasan Xan Zand 1195)".
The Ewaz gunmakers continued the above-mentioned verse with the following:
Moxalef key tavanad dar barabar ba saf-e hayja // ke man az solat-e "Haji" dam laskarsekan
j)<ij< iL ■^^l^r'llj, 'cUjlljlj'l cll^a
(How can an opponent stand a battle// When I took wrath of [master] "Haji" as army destroyer).
Another Persian poem used on Persian barrels is as follows:
In barq-e so'lexiz ra'dnahib adovafkan //rizad begah-e jang va setiz atas az dahan
j^j^ '. i ^ jjj^ '"pj.'jjI
(This radiating roar [of musket], is a foe flinger// Incendiary in time of war)
Con qamzeye botan nakonad tir an xata // gozaste be ruzegar mesmi be safsekan
(Like the coquetry of idols never misses a shot// Famed and named as enemy-line breaker).
Another Persian inscription used on the barrels of muskets from Ewaz are: In taraqe tofang saxtam az vajhe Hasan // ajdar sefati ke rizad atas az dahan
I made this percussion cap gun in "Hassan"'s style// Which like dragon flares the fire through its mouth
Manand asa va yad-e beyza-e Kalim // Laskarsekan va adovkos va seydafkan
Like the stick and shining hand of Moses// enemy slayer, opponent crasher and trapper
7) A Poem for Compatriots' Souls
The book Tarix-e Delgosa-ye Ewaz (The local history of Ewaz), Keramati (1992, p. 97) also describes the bitter fate of the gunmaking craft which was annihilated by Western technology, Keramati writes a poem to express the feeling of his Ewazian people. This tradition of appending a rhyme or poem to the text is a very old Iranian tradition. The first ten lines of the poem provide some valuable information on the imported European weaponry to Iran in general and their devastating effect on the local gun-making craft in Ewaz in particular: I write this poem for all of the steel hammerer of my country. In our modern time, new weapons have emerged.
Then, through cheap foreign currencies of Germany, Britain and other Westerners. Double barrel "Mauser" and "Martin" riffles as well as five, ten and six-barreled guns came up.
Nobody in the world has ever seen anything like these guns .
Nine centuries of archery have long gone and all the muzzleloaders are broken too.
The era of Pahlavani (chivalry) and physical strength has passed and if [the great Pahlavan] Rostam stands up.
Roaring of "Shrapnel" shell and the guns' shout would blind, deafen and make him dizzy.
As grenade, bomb, "Krupp gun" artillery is an emergent disaster from Europeans. 8) Conclusion
Although there are a number of manuscripts on different patterns of patterned crucible steel, there are almost no period manuscripts on describing different patterns of welded steel made for making gun barrels in Persia. Although there are many manuscripts on casting bronze cannons, different types of firearms and their formation, they do not provide any information on the names of the patterns of welded steel used on gun barrels. The book Tarix-e Delgosa-ye Ewaz (The local history of Ewaz) is an exception as it provides some valuable terms for the description of pattern welded steel types used on Persian gun barrels. Although the book does not describe each pattern in detail, future research might find out more Persian manuscripts on different patterns of welded steel.
References Primary Sources
1. al-Qur'an (1993). Translated by Orooj Ahmad Ali into English. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
2. al-Qur'an (2003). Hockessin: Noor Foundation International Inc.
3. Chardin, John (1988). Travels in Persia 1673-1677. New York: Dover Publications.
4. Johari Nezami, Mohammad ibn Abi al-Barakat (2004). Javahername-ye Nezami [Letter of Jewels by Nezami]. Annoated by Iraj Afsar. Tehran: Miras-e Maktub.
5. Kasi, Abolqasem (1956). Arayes al-Javaher. Handwritten Manuscript. Copied by Mojtaba Minavi. Tehran: Ketabxane-ye Danesgah-e Tehran.
6. Keramati, Mohammad Hadi (1992). Tarix-e Delgosa-ye Ewaz (The Delightful History of Ewaz). Second Edition. Shiraz: Navid-e Shiraz Publishing.
7. Mansur, Mohammad ben (1975). Gdharname [Letter of Jewels]. Annotated by Manucehr Sotude. Farhang-e Iran Zamin. Volume 4, Second Edition.
8. Mirza Lotfallah (1706-1707:1118 or 1108/1696-1697). Ta'id Besarat [Aid to Sight]. Handwritten Manuscript on Swords and Swordmaking in the British Library.
9. Nasireldin Tusi, Xaje (1574/982 Hegira). Tansuxname. Handwritten Manuscript from 982 Hegira (1574 C.E.). Tehran: Ketabxane-ye Markazi va Markaz-e Asnad-ee Danesgah-e Tehran.
10. Tahvildar Esfahani, Hosseyn ben Mohammad Ebrahim (1964). Joqrafiya-ye Esfahan: Joqrafiya-ye Tabi'i va Ensani va Amar-e Asnaf-e Sahr [The Geography of Isfahan: the Natural and Human Geography and the Statistics on Crafts from the City]. Annotated by Manouchehr Sotude. Tehran: Capxane-ye Danesgah-e Tehran.
11. Xayyam-e Neysaburi, Omar ben Ebrahim (2003). Ndruzname [Book of Nowruz]. Annotated by Ali Hosuri. Tehran: Cesme.
Secondary Sources
1. Emam Sustari, M. A. (1961). Tarix-e Megyasat va Noqud dar Hokumat-e Eslami [Units and Coins under Islamic Rule in the Classical Period]. Tehran: Capxaneye Danessaraye Ali.
2. Feuerbach, A. (2012). The Roles of Chemistry and Culture in the Origins and Legacy of Crucible Damascus Steel Blades. In Collaborative Endeavors in the Chemical Analysis of Art and Cultural Heritage Materials: Lang,
P., et al. ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society, Washington, DC
3. Figiel, L. S. (1991). On Damascus Steel. Atlantis: Atlantis Art Press.
4. Floor, W. (2003). Traditional Crafts in Qajar Iran (1800-1925). Costa Mesa: Mazda Publishers.
5. Ma'tufi, A. (1999). Tarix-e Cahr Hezar Sale-ye Artes Iran: Az Tamaddon-e Ilam Ta 1320 Xorsidi, Jange Iran Va Araq [The Four-thousand-year History of the Iranian Military: From the Elamite Civilization to the Year 1320, The Iran and Iraq War]. 2 vols. Tehran: Entesarat-e Iman.
6. Modarresi, Y., Samei, H., and Z. Safavi Mobarhen (1991). Farhang-e Estelahat-e Doreye Qajar: Qusun va Nazmiye [The Lexicon of the Expressions of the Qajar Period: Army and Military]. Tehran: Daftar-e Pajuheshäye Farhangi.
7. Moshtagh Khorasani, M. (2010) Lexicon of Arms and Armor from Iran: A Study of Symbols and TerminologyTübingen: Legat Verlag.
8. Moshtagh Khorasani, M. (2008). Reviving the Ancient Art of Making Persian Crucible Steel for Bladed Weaponry. Journal of Asian Martial Arts, Volume 17, Number 1, 54-67.
9. Romanowsky, D. (1967). Tarixce-ye Aslaheha-ye Sard dar Iran [The Short History of Cold Weapons in Iran]. [Part 2]. In: Majjale-ye Barrasihaye Tarixi [Journal of Historical Research], Number 5, Year 2, pp. 76-100.
10. Rawson, P.S. (1967) The Indian Sword. Copenhagen: Danish Arms and Armour Society.
11. Sachse, M. (1993). Damaszener Stahl: Mythos, Geschichte, Technik, Anwendung. Düsseldorf: Stahleisen.
12. Zeller, R. and E. Rohrer (1955). Orientalische Sammlung Henri Moser-Charlottenfels: Beschreibender Katalog der Waffensammlung. Bern: Kommissionsverlag von K.J. Wyß Erben AG.
