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A.B. Tankhilevich (Moscow) ESCAPISM AND TRAUMA IN I. BABEL'S "RED CAVALRY"
Abstract. The article presents an analysis of the narrator's experience in "Red Cavalry". The approach of the diegetic narrator to the reality of war is described as avoidance, or escapism. This approach is manifested in "Red Cavalry" on two levels: the diegetic level of "histoire" and the level of "narration". Firstly, it is demonstrated in the article that the narrator wants to escape from the world of war on the diegetic level. Secondly, the reasons are discussed why his attempts to escape are never fully successful, or, in other words, eventful. A conclusion is made that one of the reasons might be the strong appeal, aesthetic and erotic, which the world of war has for the narrator. The narrator is described as painfully positioned between two "looming" events, that of a final escape and that of a transformation as a result of his collision with the world of war. After that, it is demonstrated that the experience of the narrator can be described as traumatic: firstly, because of the violence which permeates the world of "Red Cavalry"; secondly and most importantly, because one of the main features of trauma is its incomprehensibility, and the world is not comprehensible for the narrator. This incomprehensibility is rendered by the narrator both directly and through form. Namely, by way of ellipsis, when the narrator avoids speaking directly about what disturbs him (but it nevertheless "shows itself through" the narrative), and also through the way Babel' uses "telegraph" style when speaking about violence, thereby avoiding conceptualization. Finally, the connection is shown between the two key concepts of the articles, escapism and trauma: the escapism of the narrator is seen as a reaction to the traumatizing reality, and the narrator's inclination to avoid conceptualization is interpreted as a gesture of escapism.
Key words: escapism; avoidance; event; eventfulness; Red Cavalry; trauma; I.E. Babel'.
А.Б. Танхилевич (Москва) Эскапизм и травма в «Конармии» И. Бабеля
Аннотация. Статья представляет собой анализ опыта рассказчика «Конармии». Способ существования рассказчика в реалиях войны описывается как «избегание» или эскапизм. Эскапизм проявляется на двух уровнях: на диегетическом уровне «Histoire» и на уровне «narration». Во-первых, в статье показано, что рассказчик стремится ускользнуть из реальности войны на диегетическом уровне. Во-вторых, подвергаются анализу причины того, что рассказчику это не удается до конца. Иначе говоря, не происходит в полной мере «событийный» побег. Одной из причин может быть то, что военная реальность обладает для рассказчика мощной притягательностью, эстетической и эротической. Рассказчик мучительно колеблется между двумя «надвигающимися» событиями: событием побега и со-
бытием полной трансформации в результате его столкновения с миром войны. Далее в статье показано, что опыт рассказчика можно описать как травматичный: во-первых, потому что мир «Конармии» пронизан насилием; во-вторых и в-главных, потому что одна из основных особенностей травмы, ее непостижимость, а мир для рассказчика непостижим. Эта непостижимость выражена как напрямую, так и через форму. А именно с помощью эллипсиса, когда рассказчик избегает говорить прямо о том, что его тревожит (но это все равно «просматривается сквозь» нар-ратив), а также с помощью использования «телеграфного стиля» при описании насилия, что дает возможность рассказчику избежать концептуализации реальности. В конце демонстрируется связь между эскапизмом и травмой, двумя центральными понятиями статьи: эскапизм нарратора интерпретируется как реакция на травмирующую реальность, а стремление нарратора избегать концептуализации как эскапистский жест.
Ключевые слова: эскапизм; избегание; событие; событийность; «Конармия»; травма; И.Э. Бабель.
One central feature of a traumatic event is the sheer inability of the subject involved in the event to make sense of it. Cathy Caruth formulates it in her classic "Unclaimed Experience. Trauma, Narrative and History": "What returns to haunt the victim <.. .> is not only the reality of the violent event but also the reality of the way that its violence has not yet been fully known" [Caruth 1996, 6]. The unknowability of trauma results in the impossibility to coherently tell about it.
Traumatic experience was deeply explored in modernist literature. As Michael Rothberg notes in his Preface to "The Future of Trauma Theory", "classical trauma theory" speaks about the investment of trauma "in fragmented modernist aesthetics" [Rothberg 2014, xiii]. Modernist aesthetics, indeed, are very much fit for the representation of a traumatized subject with a "split" psyche [Hartman 1995, 537]. Mark Lipovetsky writes about "deep connections between trauma and the cultural experience of modernity in general" [Липовецкий 2009, 750-751].
Babel's "Red Cavalry" is usually considered a modernist text [see Schreurs 1987, 243]. However, it has not yet been subject to analysis in the light of trauma theory. We intend to demonstrate how, despite the impossibility to simply tell about trauma, "Red Cavalry", albeit indirectly, renders to the reader the traumatic nature of some of the events that it describes. To do that, it is necessary to first show that the narrator of the cycle is, at least partly, an escapist.
1.
The narrator of "Red Cavalry" finds it hard to face the reality he lives in. Paradoxically, alongside with Babel's well-known inclination to fill his short stories with meticulous descriptions of blood and violence and "meat" [Новицкий 1928, 52], one of the distinguished motives of the cycle is the motive of avoidance, or escapism. The narrator doesn't want to look directly at the catastrophic reality of war. This can be demonstrated on the example of the short story "The Song".
At the end of the story, the narrator's pal, Sandy the Christ, offers the old lady, who is their host for the night, to spend the night with her. She agrees, and with that in mind moves aside her disabled son, who is also present in the room. At that point the narrator starts "imagining dreams, so as to fall asleep with pleasant thoughts" [Babel 1957, 166] ("придумывать себе сны, чтобы <...> заснуть с хорошими мыслями" [Бабель 2018, 100]). This is escapism: unwilling to face the sexually explicit scene that is about to happen in the presence of both the woman's son and the narrator, the latter prefers to consciously thrust himself into the make-believe world of dreams.
This escapist attitude also shows itself less obviously, but unequivocally through the way the narrator listens to the song which Sandy sings. The lyrics read thus: "The star of the fields above my father's house; my mother's grieving hand" [Babel 1957, 164] ("Звезда полей над отчим домом и матери моей печальная рука") [Бабель 2018, 99]. These sentimental lyrics might seem less touching, if read in the context of the biography of the singer. Sandy, in fact, does not have a "father's house", because he does not have a father (only a stepfather). More importantly, his relationships with his mother are quite problematic. He betrayed her (see the short story "Sandy the Christ") by not warning her that her husband had syphilis. While Sandy, who is a simpleton, might not feel the irony of him singing such a song, the intellectual narrator certainly should. Nevertheless, he allows himself to get lulled by the song and not to see the discrepancy between the song and the singer because it gives him a chance to dream about peace: "Those songs are indispensable to us. Nobody sees an end to the war <...> reverie broke my bones" [Babel 1957, 165] ("Песни нужны нам, никто не видит конца войне <...> мечта ломала мои кости" [Бабель 2018, 100]). This, too, is escapism this time through art.
Importantly, in neither of these two cases does the narrator explicitly name what causes the disturbance. The disturbing discrepancy between the song and the singer, the disturbing scene that is about to happen between Sandy and the old lady neither of these is openly mentioned. This ellipsis is also escapism on the level of the act of narration: the narrator avoids including what disturbs him into the narrative.
The unmentioned, however, emerges for the reader. It is "pointed at", more or less directly. For example, the story ends just when the scene between Sandy and the woman is about to begin, so that the reader can easily imagine it. The dark irony of Sandy singing the song, though not made explicit, strikes the reader after comparing "The Song" with "Sandy the Christ". So, the uncomfortable reality, while not verbalized, eventually "shows itself' through the narrative. C. Caruth pointed out that literature deals with "the complex relation between knowing and not knowing", emphasizing that "at the specific point at which knowing and not knowing intersect <.> the language of literature and the psychoanalytic theory of traumatic experience precisely meet" [Caruth 1996, 3]. It is exactly in the zone between knowing and not knowing that the reader of "The Song" finds what disturbs the narrator. This "blurry" way of narration indicates that the narrator's experience might be traumatic.
A possible reason for the traumatizing experience that the narrator goes through is that his escapism does not effectively result in an escape. This is true not only for "The Song", but for the whole cycle. For instance, another place for the narrator to run away to is the Jewish religious tradition, which is represented chiefly by Gedali and by rabbi Motale; and just like dreams and art in "The Song", this "safe space" is illusionary. Gedali, for example, embodies simultaneously the illusionary past (which is gone forever) and the illusionary future (which will never be). His world resembles the world that lives in the memories of the narrator, the world of his childhood. He is characterized as "dreamy", and his humanistic project of the "International of good people" [Babel 1957, 63] ("интернационал добрых людей" [Бабель 2018, 26]) is called impossible. Gedali is surrounded by "rose-tinted haze" [Babel 1957, 68] ("розовым дымом»"[Бабель 2018, 31]), rabbi Motale "by the liars and the possessed" [Babel 1957, 68] ("бесноватыми и лжецами" [Бабель 2018, 31]), and his associate, Mordecai, offers the narrator to drink the wine that "he won't be given" [Babel 1957, 69] ("которого вам не дадут" [Бабель 2018, 32]). However much the narrator would like to seek refuge there, he understands the fragility of that world and the futility of his desire, and therefore returns to his propaganda train. There is no clear "shifting of a persona across the borders of a semantic field", to quote the famous definition of an event by Yu.M. Lotman ("перемещение персонажа через границу семантического поля" [Лотман 1970, 282]). Rather, the narrator's escape is a "looming" event: one which is longed for but does not come true.
This position is painful. No wonder L. Trilling used the word "torn" to describe Babel's narrator in his landmark article "Isaac Babel: Torn Between Violence and Peace" (1955), which was then included as an Introduction into Babel's "Collected Stories" that are used in the present article.
The reason why the narrator occupies this painful position is that he is attracted by the world of war as much as he detests it, wants to become part of it just as much as he wants to escape. We claim that this position is represented, though obliquely, by what happens to the horse in the short story "The Remount Officer". We also claim that the event that happens to the horse bears some features that characterize trauma.
2.
In this story the protagonist, Dyakov, does several things: he tortures a horse, makes her "fall in love" with him, revivifies her and, in some sense, creates her anew all at the same time. "If a mount falls and gets up again, then it's a mount <...> But this nice little filly, you'll see, will get up for me," he says [Babel 1957, 48] ("Ежели конь упал и поднимется, то это конь <...> Но, между прочим, эта справная кобылка у меня подымется" [Бабель 2018, 15]). These are the words of a demiurge. Having said them, he beats the horse: "The whip cracked whining against the bloodstained flanks. Her whole body trembling, the jade stood on her legs, her doglike eyes, filled with love and fear, never for an instant leaving Dyakov's face" [Babel 1957, 48] ("Хлыст со стоном прильнул к кровоточащим бокам. Дрожа всем телом, кляча
стояла на своих на четырех и не сводила с Дьякова собачьих, боязливых, влюбляющихся глаз" [Бабель 2018, 15]). Finally, the sadomasochist act of love, torture and creation is complete, and the creator is satisfied: "That means she is a mount," he concludes [Babel 1957, 48] ("Значит, что конь" [Бабель 2018,15]). Not only has he brought the horse up on her legs, but he has also turned her into what she was meant to be: a mount.
This painful, erotic and aesthetic event of transfiguration of the horse bears significance for the interpretation of the narrator's journey. Just like the poor jade, the narrator is also fascinated by Dyakov aesthetically and, perhaps, erot-ically, as he speaks of Dyakov's "well-proportioned athlete's body" ("статное тело атлета") and "perfect legs" ("прекрасные ноги" [Бабель 2018, 15]). It is hard to overestimate the importance of the motives combined in the episode for the cycle. The erotic (perhaps hermaphrodite) attractiveness of strong and brutal men in Babel's stories was analyzed by O.A. Lekmanov [Лекманов 2017, 210-212, 215]. The combination of violence and eroticism is very common in "Red Cavalry", where violence is often connected with metaphors and epithets suggesting kindness or tenderness. The epithet "tender" ("нежный"), for example, is almost unexceptionally used in the context of death, violence and humiliation.
Moreover, the Cossacks do to Lyutov the very thing Dyakov does to the horse: they fascinate him ("My First Goose", "The Commander of the Second Brigade"), torture him ("My First Goose", "After the Battle", "Argamak") and maybe create him anew, if only in the later stories ("Argamak", "The Kiss"). The same, perhaps, is done to Russia by the Revolution: the image of the horse made it possible for A.K. Zholkovsky to see in "The Remount Officer" an ironic and gloomy correlation with Pushkin's "The Bronze Horseman", where Peter the Great forces Russia, like a horse, to stand on her hind legs [Жолковский, Ямпольский 1994, 38].
Of course, that is not to say that the event of "The Remount Officer" reflects the narrator's journey in a straightforward, allegorical manner. However, the creative, erotic and transformative torment of the horse is very close to the "thematic core" of "Red Cavalry", to use the term of F.L. Ingram [Ingram 1967, 12], which is revealed throughout the cycle in a series of recurring motifs. Thus, this event does represent what happens to the narrator in his collision with the catastrophic world of war.
And this event might be interpreted as traumatic. It involves two elements that are central to trauma: violence and transformation of the self. Shoshana Felman quotes a woman who speaks about her husband, both of them Holocaust survivors: "The man I married and the man he was after the war were not the same person. And I'm sure I was not the same person either" [Felman, Laub 1992, 42]. For Slavoj Zizek, a traumatic event literally kills the subject, thus making the posttraumatic subject someone who "has survived their own death" [Жижек 2019, 121]. Through trauma, the self painfully transforms. So, even though it is by no means possible to say that the horse is traumatized (we know little about her inner world), still the central event of "The Remount Officer"
definitely involves some elements that are essential for trauma.
In the narrator, the desire for this transformation and the yearning to escape from it (discussed previously) are paradoxically combined. This painful balance (being "torn between violence and peace") in itself might be a sign of trauma. Indeed, descriptions of trauma constantly involve images of a disjunct, split self. Trauma comes from (or rather is) an experience which "shatters the social and psychological sense of self' [Henke 2010, 160].
3.
It was mentioned that the incomprehensibility of reality (which is a central feature of traumatic experience) manifests itself through the way the story is told, namely through the narrator's "escapist" ellipsis in "The Song". Another way of rendering this incomprehensibility can be seen in how Babel' shows violence.
On the one hand, it might seem that Babel's approach to showing violence is all but escapist. Indeed, the writer is famously straightforward in describing the messy details of life at war. However, there is an important lack of conceptualization and evaluation every time the narrator speaks about violence. E. Sicher wrote that in Babel's books "there is little concern about the resolution of the event" [Sicher 1986, 96]. Indeed, when Babel' writes about violent events, it is certainly so. He employs what A. Zholkovsky called "documentary" or "telegraph" style [Жолковский, Ямпольский 1994, 65]. It means that he does not give any opinions, he simply (and "dryly") describes. One example of such a description would be the episode when one of the Cossacks "carefully, without splashing himself, cut the old man's throat" [Babel 1957, 103-104] ("осторожно зарезал старика, не забрызгавшись" [Бабель 2018, 58]). Another example concerns Trunov, the squadron commander: "From the distance of twenty paces Trunov sent the Polish lad's scull flying, and bits of his brains dripped over my hands" [Babel 1957, 130] ("С двадцати шагов Пашка разнес юноше череп, и мозги поляка посыпались мне на руки" [Бабель 2018, 76]). This is Babel's typical approach to describing violence.
This is especially striking because in some cases Babel's narrator is more than ready to conceptualize reality. He is an intellectual and a war correspondent, so he can generalize, he uses metaphors which help render meaning. He can call his newspaper a "dynamite fuse laid beneath the army" [Babel 1957, 111] ("динамитный шнур, подкладываемый под армию" [Бабель 2018, 63]), the tachanka, a "mobile and formidable instrument of warfare" [Babel 1957, 73] ("грозное и подвижное боевое средство" [Бабель 2018, 35]); he can say that "Hasidism kept that superstitious population <...> in stifling captivity" [Babel 1957, 104] ("хасидизм держал в удушливом плену это суетливое население" [Бабель 2018, 59]), and Berestechko "reeks on, awaiting a new era" [Babel 1957, 105] ("смердит в ожидании новой эры" [Бабель 2018, 59]). However, the eloquent and smart narrator does not use generalizations or metaphors like these when he speaks about violence or danger. At those moments the eloquence "switches off": the narrator his consciousness is not ready to make sense of whatever is going on. But, of course, this silence is in itself eloquent,
as it renders the unknowability of the "wilderness of war" [Babel 1957, 70, 166] ("пустыня войны" [Бабель 2018, 32, 101]).
Thus, for Babel's narrator, the violence of war seems impossible to make sense of. Whenever it is described (and it is described in full detail, which means that it clearly attracts the narrator's attention), there is a visible lack of meaning: it does not look like the narrator fully understands the reality around him. And no wonder: the reality is too catastrophic.
It is not only cognition that is "held back" when Babel' describes violence in his "telegraph" style, but emotion as well. Babel's narrator almost never describes his feelings when showing violence, although elsewhere he does not hesitate to share them (cf. "On Sabbath eves I am oppressed by the dense melancholy of memories" [Babel 1957, 60]; "В субботние кануны меня томит густая печаль воспоминаний" [Бабель 2018, 25]). When violence is happening or when there is danger to the life of the narrator, there are no feelings, no self-analysis, just "neutral" observation of the outside world. Exceptions are rare. A possible interpretation would be that the state of Babel's diegetic narrator at such moments is "numbed", just like the state of the traumatized soldier who is "faced with sudden and massive death around him" [Caruth 1996, 11].
A similar attitude is employed by the narrator when retelling or otherwise rendering the hypodiegetic narratives of other characters. These inner stories are often quite violent (they are full of "strong stuff", as M. Schreurs correctly points out [Schreurs 1987, 254]). Such are the stories of Kurdyukov, Pavli-chenko, Prishchepa, Balmashev, Konkin: all of them speak about murder. Lyu-tov, the narrator, never makes conclusions, never conceptualizes anything after hearing these stories. Again, Babel' models a consciousness which is not ready to make sense.
However, importantly, the narrator emphasizes that those stories have stuck in his mind. "I cannot forget his tale" ("Мне не забыть его рассказа" [Бабель 2018, 51]), says the narrator about the story of Prishchepa. "It does not deserve to be forgotten" [Babel 1957, 42] ("Оно не заслуживает забвения" [Бабель 2018, 11]), he says about the letter of Kurdyukov. A typical hypodiegetic narrative in "Red Cavalry" is a story of violence which sticks in the narrator's memory but from which no meaning is explicitly extracted.
This (traumatic, as we claim) inexplicability of reality sheds new light on Babel's trademark use of epithets such as "indescribable", "inexplicable", "ineffable" ("неописуемый", "невыразимый", "неизъяснимый"), which are usually, although not always, employed in the context of suffering and grief. It is the trauma of facing the unbearable and the inexplicable that partly accounts for this word choice. Interestingly, these epithets are often used in Babel's "Diary of 1920", mostly when he speaks about grief, tiredness, despair etc. This means that the stylistic device reflects the worldview of the author himself, not just that of the narrator.
This inexplicability of the world might also offer a good explanation for the "non-eventfulness" of the campaign of the Red Cavalry, about which we wrote elsewhere [Танхилевич 2022]. The narrator of "Red Cavalry", as we hope to
have demonstrated, does not conceptualize the Red Cavalry's campaign as an event in full sense, one which is embedded in a narrative, meaningful, purposeful, having reasons and consequences. This lack of conceptualization might be partly attributed to the fact that his collision with the world of war is traumatic.
This restraint of the narrator from conceptualizing the reality around him can also be perceived as a manifestation of the above-mentioned general principle of avoidance, or escapism. Here it works on the level of the act of narrative. The narrator desires not to "face" the reality of war. It is the same principle at work here that makes the narrator, on the diegetic level, imagine dreams at the end of "The Song", seek the company of rabbi Motale in "The Rabbi" and the company Gedali in "Gedali".
4.
So, the diegetic narrator finds it hard to confront the world of war, as depicted in "Red Cavalry". He tries to escape from this world (on the diegetic level), but never fully succeeds. The reason why this event does not truly happen but only "looms" is that the narrator is also attracted to this world even enamored by it. While he remains there, he undergoes a contradictory and transformative experience, tormenting, erotic and aesthetic at the same time, an experience shown in "The Remount Officer". This experience, which is the collision with the powerful forces of revolution and war, involves two elements which are essentially connected with trauma: violence and transformation.
The means that Babel's narrator employs to speak about his experience also indicate that it is traumatic. One such means is ellipsis, when the narrator avoids speaking directly about whatever disturbs him, but it nevertheless "shows itself' through the narrative. Another means is the way Babel' renders the world's incomprehensibility when his narrator confronts violence (a combination of violence and incomprehensibility being a symptom of trauma). The impossibility to make sense of the world leads to the employment of "telegraph" or "documentary" style when speaking about violence, the narrator thereby refraining from any interpretation and conceptualization. Through these stylistic devices the author enacts on the level of the act of narration the same principle which guides him on the diegetic level: the principle of avoidance, or escapism.
REFERENCES (RUSSIAN)
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REFERENCES (Articles from Scientific Journals)
1. Hartman G.H. On Traumatic Knowledge and Literary Studies. New Literary History. Summer, 1995, vol. 26, no. 3. pp. 537-563. (In English).
2. Schreurs M. Two Forms of Montage is Babel's Konarmija. Russian Literature, 1987, vol. XXI, pp. 243-292. (In English).
3. Tankhilevich A.B. Pokhod Konarmii kak ne-sobytiye [The Red Cavalry Campaign as a "Non-Event"]. VestnikMoskovskogo universiteta, Series 9, Philology, 2022, no. 3, pp. 134-144. (In Russian).
(Articles from Proceedings and Collections of Research Papers)
4. Henke S.A. Modernism and Trauma. The Cambridge Companion to Modernist Women Writers. Purdue, Cambridge University Press, 2010, pp. 160-171. (In English).
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8. Novitskiy P. Babel' [Babel']. I.E. Babel'. Stat'i i materialy [I.E. Babel'. Articles and Materials]. Leningrad, Academia Publ., 1928, pp. 43-70. (In Russian).
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(Monographs)
10. Caruth C. Unclaimed Experience. Trauma, Narrative and History. Baltimore, Maryland, The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996. 154 p. (In English).
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(Thesis and Thesis Abstracts)
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Танхилевич Александр Борисович, Московский государственный университет имени М.В. Ломоносова; Российская академия народного хозяйства и государственной службы.
Аспирант филологического факультета (МГУ), старший преподаватель Института общественных наук (РАНХиГС). Научные интересы: Исаак Бабель, русский рассказ, малая проза модернизма, нарратология, событийность.
E-mail: alex-tankhil@yandex.ru
ORCID ID: 0000-0002-2772-2340
Alexander B. Tankhilevich, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Russian Presidential Academy of National Economy and Public Administration.
PhD Student at the Department of Philology (MSU), Senior Lecturer in Institute for Social Sciences (RANEPA). Research Interests: Isaac Babel', Russian short story, modernist short story, narratology, eventfulness.
E-mail: alex-tankhil@yandex.ru
ORCID ID: 0000-0002-2772-2340
