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13Социальная история окружающей среды и роль сборщиков мусора в экономике замкнутого цикла
Ермолаева Юлия Вячеславовна,
научный сотрудник, сектор исследования профессий и профессиональных групп, Федеральный научно-исследовательский социологический центр Российской академии наук E-mail: [email protected]
Данная статья приводит социально-исторический обзор истории трансформации деятельности собирателей отходов, анализируется процесс создания цепочек обмена между государством и сборщиками, изменение их статуса и степени автономия, которые определяются уровнем экологического контроля, требованиями социальных институтов. Социобиологическая роль сборщика мусора становится все более острой в контексте глобального экологического неравенства на пути перехода к экономике замкнутого цикла. В разные периоды истории потребность государства и муниципалитетов в сборщиках была разной, чем больше ценилось вторичное сырье в экологически-ориентированных культурах, тем больше ступеней создавалось в иерархии сборщиков мусора и степени их автономии, соответственно, тем больше было возможностей вернуть вторичные ресурсы в материальный поток. В условиях глобализации и технологического прогресса усложнились требова-нияк навыкам: если ранее статус и навыки могли передаваться по наследству или через группы, то сейчас формальные и неформальные группы собирателей отходов стоят перед необходимостью проходить обучение, позиционировать свою деятельности с точки зрения зеленых профессий. С другой стороны, самозанятые сборщики все чаще сталкивается с юридическими ограничениями в отношении своей деятельности, что является глобальной проблемой формирования их формального статуса поэтому важна либерализация экологических институтов по отношению внедрения собирателей отходов в формальный сектор экономики, так же острой проблемой остается бедность данной категории и повышения уровня охраны труда.
Ключевые слова: циркулярная экономика, зеленая экономика, социология профессий, антропология профессий, управление отходами, собиратели отходов.
Garbage collectors consist 1-2% of the world's population [1], and their quantity continues to grow, it's due to process global urbanization effect in developing countries with increasing inequality, gen-trification, and environmental modernization and gentrification. The wastepickers "gaining and retaining access to resources and opportunities, dealing with risk, negotiating social relationships and managing social networks and institutions within households, communities and the cities" [2]. The green economy becoming a the main program in solving social and economic problems of eco-modernization of countries in the context of pursuing the goals of sustainable development, which implies a transition to cyclical production and transformation of the labor market structure, that moves a marginal sector into a socially significant one. Stiglitz proves on numerous facts and examples that one of the negative aspects of globalization destroys industry, contributes to the growth of unemployment, poverty, slows down scientific and technological progress and aggravates the ecological catastrophe on the planet. This is due to the development of the international division of labor, when most of the harmful industries and waste are moved to less developed countries that are technologically unable to deal with environmental problems[3].
Resource- and carbon-intensive models of "development" of a linear economy with the growth of GDP and wages all over the world with a directly proportional increase in resource extraction and GHG emissions exacerbate social inequality. This is especially noticeable against the background of economic growth in Africa, the Asia-Pacific region and America (International Labor Organization)[4].
Now 175 countries are on a "slow growth" trajectory and only 25 countries are on a very "fast growth" trajectory. In the long term, those who fall less during crisis years and can keep GDP at a stable
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level develop more intensively, while sharp jumps are more often associated with an increase in prices for their main resource, especially for countries with a commodity-export model of the economy, and over time the growth rate is falling again, it becomes necessary to create a sustainable resource conservation policy. In accordance with the Lipset development hypothesis, the transition to rapid growth occurs through economic growth, an increase in the level of education, professional skills and a convergence of the income level of various groups of the population, i.e., a decrease in various effects of social inequality. As a result, society begins to show demand for democratic political and social institutions and the modernization of the economy is consolidated.
The more the human potential of different population groups is realized in economy and the more contribution they can make through liberal supporting institutions, the closer their path to economic growth and sustainable development.
It is estimated that an increase in recycling sector by 1% leads to an increase in the number of jobs in a circular economy by 0.4%, with the majority of jobs concentrated in different stages of recycling, the main part of these jobs from the developing countries. The success of green jobs depends from the size of the workforce, the number of jobs created locally and the level of development of a particular economic region, all of which play a role in whether the measures how the circular economy will lead to a local multiplier effect of the economy. The social aspects of the program for the introduction of waste have not yet been developed, on the one hand, because in the global community there are cultural and political differences of the effectiveness of their work and their civic self-identification, different degrees of effectiveness of local social institutions in places that control the work of waste col-lectors[5], [6].
Conceptual Frames and waste pickers social history
From the modern sociological perspective wastepickers was the subject of sociology
of social movements, environmental sociology, political economy, green and sustainable economy, informal economy, urban and social anthropology, sustainability studies, participatory and societal governance, environmental modernization theories, urban and social geography, gender, inclusive and inequality sociology.
In sociobiological studies, the specialization of the waste collector is reduced to the function of the decomposer, which determines its lower social hierarchy. Waste collectors get lower quality resources for life support, unfavorable environmental conditions in both pre-industrial and post-industrial communities. Gathering (both food items and waste) becomes the main strategy of behavior. It performs the public ecological function of purifying and extending the product life cycle, maintaining an ecological balance[7].
The problem of studying waste collectors in sociology involves the appeal to the concepts of social differentiation and exclusion. A socially oriented approach is based on solidarity and the returning of waste collectors to the formal sector of the economy, where the interests of exclusive entities are considered at first time. Institutional rules for the regulation of waste collectors amplify their role in their economic impact D. Nort)[8]. Environmental inequality and environmental injustice are considered by D. Pellow [9], the uneven distribution of environmental risks and benefits depending on the level of social and economic status of citizens in favor of the wealthier. The problem of garbage collectors can be reduced to two main areas of research in the sociology of professions.
First, from the point of view of procedural approaches in sociology and anthropology of professions: considered as significant socio-ecological practices in the anthropology of professions, the occupation, attitudes, ideology and behavior and self-identity of waste collectors allows them to be classified as an irreplaceable category employment in environmental institutions. The procedural approach involves many variations of the occupation -from self-employment without training, inherited forms of employment that can enter
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the official labor market, group practices in communities, as well as modern forms of professions related to waste management, which require certification about education^].
Secondly, it is important to highlight the functionalist direction, within the framework, where waste collectors are characterized as a social group, their path of pro-fessionalization, and the process of social adaptation, the function of the profession in society, institutionalization in the context of eco-modernization and the cicrular economy, the formation of a separate economic niche. To a greater extent, the functionalist approach corresponds to the mac-rolevel of the study of social reality. This approach includes:
- taxonomic approach, which is focused on considering the function of the profession, specialized knowledge and skills, values, codes of ethics, the degree of power distribution for decision-making in a particular issue. This approach has been tested in studies[1l];
- the theory of the professional project; which examines allowing to consider waste collectors in terms of the degree of their professionalization. However, these directions are formed simultaneously and participate in the formation of the same professional field within the green professional market[12];
- green economy and sustainable jobs frames in the context of the concept of sustainable development. Let us recall the well-known concepts, developed, for example, by D. Bell or E. Toffler, as well as the assertion that "technological changes and environmental challenges entail socio-cultural changes, which bring new groups of necessary professionals to neutralize the negative human impact on the environment" or the theory of global professionalism, where communities encompass not individual countries, but entire regions and continents of the world, create oases of the local economy.
Global networks of garbage collectors as a social and professional group were investigated in Chengappa 2013; Kungskulniti 1991; Herrera 1995[13]. Re-
searchers had identified similar features: versatility in the function of waste collectors, a high risk-generating level, and different labor opportunities in professional development.
To describe the development trends of this employment niche, there was used functionalist and taxonomic approaches, where will be considered the stages of the formation of a professional niche of waste collectors, a change in the social function of occupations and the transition to a professional group in various social conditions. There are highlighted differences in labor forms of employment, hierarchy and institutional level of professional associations, which are described by the theory of professional project.
Stages of formation of a professional niche of waste collectors
1. Ancient civilizations and the early Middle Ages: the origin of waste collection practices. In ancient times, gathering was common among hominids as a practice to compensate for seasonal food shortages. Nomadic cultures did not feel the need to collect secondary materials; therefore, this practice appears only in sedentary cultures of the Neolithic and first urban settlements.
In the ancient period, cities of different continents developed polar strategies for waste management, which determined the role and function of the collector. M. Medina describes the situation of gatherers in the Minoan Troy, the Middle East and African settlements in 1200 BC. Collection and disposal of waste was not controlled by anyone, and collectors were a self-employed niche, choosing from them raw materials for their needs. A layer of land from the waste of citizens grew, and new residential areas were built on the remnants of previous waste, forming a single cultural layer, thanks to which we can today judge life in the Neolithic and Bronze Ages.
In the civilizations of the Mediterranean, the centers of which were Athens and Rome, as well as in Egypt in Africa, due to the rapid growth of cities, the authorities thought about the distribution and specialization of the responsibilities of people responsible for the cleanliness of the city
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at the municipal level. In Athens, a decree was passed requiring garbage collectors to organize and separate collection of mixed waste. In ancient Rome, the authorities organized a detachment of "sanitary police", which was responsible for waste disposal and street cleaning. These crops for that time had a developed waste management system comparing by nowaday's standards, capable of preventing excess pollution and creating a demand for collectors, saving resources.
However, in all of these cultures, waste collectors had a low status, or were completely marginalized, had little labor intrinsic value in comparison with self-employed collectors of the Minoan civilization[l3].
In the countries of Asia, in ancient China, were valued organic raw materials, and rag-pickers collected paper, and was widespread the cooperation of scavengers with fertilizer producers. Japanese civilization stigmatized everything that came into contact with the dirt, the dead, and the waste was handled exclusively by the marginalized.
In the New World, the Mayan tribes together participated in the collection of waste and reused broken ceramics, building stones, jewelry, and scrap metal. Aztec scavengers remained highly respected, since they had access to resources and were considered secured, already at that time in the New World there was a separate collection of containers for storing different types of biological and non-biological waste, and an ecological culture was developed with a strict system of sanctions and rules, uncontrolled garbage dumping was prohibited and violations were subject to fines. The Environmental Social Institute was supported by officials in charge of waste collection control and collectors.
2. From the Middle Ages to the Renaissance - the flourishing of the refiner guilds. In medieval European cities, garbage was thrown directly onto the street. The municipality continued to involve the marginalized in its cleaning up - the old people, beggars, convicts and convicts, "all those souls soaked in mud, from which society rots". The turning point in the culture of hygiene and the change in the policy of waste
disposal occurred together with the discovery of the bacterial nature of pollution after multiple pandemics and led to the creation of new requirements for the social institution of hygiene.
However, this division further contributed to differentiation. Social divisions appeared in "dirty, backward, poor", and "clean, decent". Along with the growth of the metallurgical industry, waste collection is becoming popular, and the number of people involved in growing. Special tools as carts and baskets appeared, in every residential building it was required to arrange premises for storing the garbage that residents, according to the established law, had to hand over, and not throw out on the street. Otherwise, the government imposed fines[14].
Crafts and guilds appear, which include waste collectors, thereby increasing their status to members of the local professional community, which became the part of the highly specialized guild from which they collect waste. The most common form of interaction was cooperation: waste collectors collaborated with farmers, creating a closed market for organic waste; a fabric market, where rags, rags, burial clothes, shoe soles were collected; scrap market, where waste collectors were included in the guild of engravers and metal traders.
Throughout the Middle Ages and modern times, textiles and paper were a particular deficit on all continents. Citizens saved the most of these materials, they were expensive, and it was more and more difficult to collect them. Therefore, the demand for the labor of collectors of such materials increased, and the more the demand for scarce raw materials grew, the more the status of collectors and recyclers of recyclable materials increased. Junkers were very popular as resellers, exempted from any taxes on the collection and transportation of recycled fabric and paper. In cities, waste collectors have a clear hierarchy:
- the bottom layer - a collector without a designated area of garbage, moving from place to place;
- "walker", which differed from the lower layer in that it had tools suitable for
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its activity - a basket, a lantern and a crook;
- "distributor" - the owner of sorting places that could be inherited, forming, for example, a dynasty of rag-pickers;
- the top of the pyramid - "craftsmen" -that is, the owners of recyclable materials warehouses who could hire workers.
In world trade and worldwide recycled sales flows, scavengers played a pivotal role in the production and recycling of paper, supplying rags to paper mills in the Middle East throughout the Middle Ages, Renaissance and early modern Europe and the Americas. But we must not forget that in the pursuit of profit and raw materials, they raided and plundered the treasures of world culture.
3. The period from the middle of the 19th century to the middle of the 20th century. Possession crimes have forced European cities to take action. In the 1700s in the European cities of England, France and Spain, laws were passed prohibiting rag-pickers from roaming the streets, citizens were ordered to give waste only to municipal employees. Since 1883, a separate collection was introduced for decaying substances, for paper and rags, for glass and other utensils. The institution of control and flow chains has become more complicated: from the structure of "man-garbage-city authorities", a transition has taken place to a complicated system: "man-garbage-junk-man (rag-picker) -municipal government - private company working under a contract". Waste collectors were repressed, forcing them to move outside the cities, and their contingent was renewed at the expense of outsiders.
Under pressure from the authorities, wastepickers gradually subsided - they had to integrate into the changed structure, hiring for official work. Industrialization, the first incinerators and automated waste collection are reducing the number of waste collectors. Lower-level rag-pickers compete with junk-sellers who provide their services with the services of "clean" skilled workers. However, with increasing demands on the quality of recycled mate-
rials, the labor of waste collectors is less valued[15].
4. The second half of the twentieth century and the present: global associations and professional growth. The problem of garbage is becoming global, and there are acute questions about its quantity and tox-icity. The more the rate of mass production, based on complex materials, increases, the more waste is generated that does not decompose. There was appeared new technologies as incineration plants, waste sorting and processing plants. However, only a quarter of the world's waste is recycled, which divides the recyclable materials market into two parts. A high-tech market is embedded in an economic system that can provide financial investment in a system for separate collection and recycling. It requires well-educated and skilled "green jobs" that reduce our footprint. This creates a separate social demand for training in green occupations in the production and processing industry[16]. Those countries that do not have the funds to create a collection and recycling market sector choose polygon technologies and incineration plants. Global processes of international trade can stimulate the development of the raw material sector of the economy based on the over-exploitation of raw material deposits for export. In this case, there are also competitive advantages associated with neglect of environmental costs. These phenomena gave rise to the concept of environmental dumping, which means the transfer of production from one country to another, where the current environmental requirements are less stringent. In countries where there are no real political opportunities to express the social and environmental demands of the population, and the ruling elites are linked by corporate and patronage relations with business structures, environmental policy becomes as "hostage" of the interests of those who advocate increasing the rate of economic profit. Moreover, in the countries with the greatest distribution of landfills, an informal waste collection market is developing, where the main factors are waste collectors who create their settlements near landfills.
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The higher the rate of urbanization in history, the more the number of gatherers grew. The difference in waste management strategies and technological support for their utilization leads to an acute differentiation of the world division of labor into producing countries and utilizing countries, since part of the waste stream in non-utilized form settles in the first type of countries in the form of landfills where there are no recycling technologies. These are usually developing countries. They accept the waste streams of developed countries, and the social group of garbage collectors is growing again.
Modern forms of organizing wastepickers
The organization of the forms of activity of waste collectors in our time is different, it are:
1) labor associations, cooperatives, federations and organizations and NGOs with an official scheme and cultural ethics. In the 1980s appeared garbage collection organizations. According to the Global Alliance of Wastepickers, as of 2016, there were 30 associations and 20 million registered garbage collectors, taking into account local cooperatives. The most famous of them are located in Mexico, Central and South America, Asia (India, Philippines), Egypt. Associations as a form of employment or self-employment are most profitable both for workers and for the structures that employ them, because there is a high level of psychological mutual assistance and solidarity; families and dynasties are formed, there are professional norms of behavior, the rights of the organization are upheld. In the global alliance of waste collectors, declarations, charters and missions appear that ensure the inclusion of the population in separate collection, abandonment of incineration technologies, landfills, search for institutions for the exchange of knowledge, experience and technologies, ensure the protection of laws and public policies[17];
2) the traditionally fixed stigma in the social hierarchy - the castes of India, the Coptic settlement in Egypt;
3) groups created due to anomie due to the division of customs. So, in the city
of Manshiyat-Nasir there is a guild of Coptic Christians engaged in the collection and processing of garbage, the number of which is about 45 thousand people. They destroy about 85% of the garbage of citizens, leaving part for their own needs, and sending part for recycling;
4) shadow illegal organization. These include the Italian and Russian garbage mafias. They were formed due to the lack of an owner due to gaps in the law that gave rise to mafia private structures;
5) self-employment is inherent in China and Southeast Asia. There, the number of free garbage collectors is estimated at 3.5 million;
6) situational crisis forms of gathering are especially characteristic of periods of economic crises, embargoes and military conflicts, environmental disasters that deprive people of their livelihood, lead them to temporary gathering[18];
7) representatives of the group of "green" professions, the number of which is growing in the context of environmental ethics, corporate responsibility and in connection with the goals of sustainable development (the modern approach was formed by the UN, UNEP, the International Labor Organization (ILO) under the Green Jobs Program with a discussion of the problem of labor protection, justice, safety of work with waste).
The waste management and utilization program employs more than 500 thousand people in Brazil, 62,147 in South Africa, 400 to 500 thousand people in Bangladesh, about 600 thousand people in Asia. Of the 27 countries, about two-thirds have established platforms to predict skills needs and provide skill definitions in the professional market.
Each sector of the economy should include a waste management specialist. For agriculture, which requires the greatest pollution control, the market is estimated at 976 thousand jobs, 157 thousand jobs are allocated in the wood and paper industry, the water industry assumes the presence of 950 thousand corresponding jobs. Textiles (as a general market direction, not eco-textiles) are estimated at 49 thousand jobs, mainly related to ecosys-
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tem services. Tourism assumes 37 thousand corresponding jobs. The African market as a whole can create 59% of all jobs in ecosystem services, the Asian and Pacific market is estimated at 47% of all jobs (in second place), only followed by the American (17%), European (16%) and Middle Eastern (15%) markets[19].
The new green labor market, according to the estimates of the International Labor Organization and the UN, could create about 18 million jobs in the entire world economy. The largest contribution to the change in the quality of the environment is made by the energy and transport sectors of the economy due to the more intense impact on climate change. Basically, the creation of jobs in this area means the redistribution of workers from the mining and processing sector to the industrial and household waste management sector. And such a redistribution, as well as an awareness of the importance of this type of activity, also means an increase in the social status of those engaged in this type of activity. Local and national authorities will need to establish solid waste management systems with rules and incentives to support responsible waste management companies. There can be distinguished the following main areas of the waste recycling profession:
- recycling: specialists in waste processing, their minimization, head of waste processing, ecologist, coordinator of municipal recycling, green chemistry;
- waste disposal at the landfill: the head of the public works service, the head of operations at the landfill, the head of the sanitary service, the engineer for working with hazardous waste, the coordinator of this type of waste, the operator of the landfill, the waste collector;
- communication, education and marketing: specialist in teaching modern types of waste management, public relations manager, environmental educator, software services specialist;
- industrial waste: manager of relevant processes, coordinator of available resources, executive director for industrial waste, chief specialist for special
waste collection, inspector of industrial waste. Russia is only planning a program to create "green jobs" under the new General Agreement for the period 2018-2020.
In cities with an already streamlined collection system, there are four groups of waste collectors:
- door-to-door wastepickers, independently serving individual households by agreement. They are both investing in individual transportation systems and looking for private companies that collect recyclable materials;
- street waste collectors;
- municipal waste collectors (common in Mexico, Colombia, Thailand and the Philippines);
- collectors of waste from landfills, operating in the shadow market and having the lowest status. People employed here, as a rule, live in landfills built from waste of building materials, on a dump or next to it (this type of activity is common in Manila, Mexico City, Cape Town, Bangalore, Guadelahara, Rio de Janeiro, Dar es Salaam, etc.). WIEGO use other kind of classification
from the view of involving waste pickers in the economy.
The unorganized or autonomous waste picker makes a living picking or buying recyclable materials on the streets and selling it to shops. These workers are alone and not connected to other waste pickers associations or cooperatives.
Organized waste pickers woking with cooperatives and associations.
The waste picker with a contract working mainly in junk yards, land fills, or met-allurgic or other kind of industrial sector, public municipal sector or in associations and cooperatives.
Informal activity ultimately determines the level of income, working conditions, and the social status of employed people. On the one hand, it is limited by municipal requirements, on the other hand, by its own motivation for continuing education. The informal market is vulnerable due to dependence on intermediate primary and secondary dealers, processors, brokers and wholesalers, which can al-
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so include both formal and informal sectors. Thus, the recycling network takes the form of a hierarchy with varying degrees of involvement in the formal market and a complex system of interactions within the waste management institution. The economic success of a waste collector depends on the price of the recyclable material, on whether it is included in structures that reduce its vulnerability, on the need for a level of worker training, and on an agreement with local governments and / or the private sector.
Government waste management policies define the legal context in which both formal and informal waste collection markets operate, which affects the professional and labor status of the collector. There are three types of policies applied to informal gatherers: repressive, accompanied by expressions of "concern" by the authorities about inhuman and unhygienic working conditions (for example, in Colombia); dismissive of this type of activity for religious and moral-ethical reasons, which at the same time makes the work of collectors possible only in the field of corruption (bribes to officials) or with their support by certain political parties (for example, in Mexico City). And the last type is support within the framework of the eco-modernization policy. This strategy is emerging in liberal social institutions seeking to include all groups involved in the waste collection and recycling chain. Here, the most common form of public-private partnership, the support of trade unions (Brazil, Vietnam).
Conclusion
The transition to a circular economy requires coordinated global cooperation between countries, enterprises and workers. The interconnectedness of global supply chains means that consumption and production in one country includes materials and wastes used in other countries, which means that it expands global labor networks, can involve both formal and shadow or semi-formal markets. there are stable professional and craft communities engaged in the collection and processing of waste, regulated by the ethical and envi-
ronmental complex of sustainable development with the possibility of growth for waste collectors. Institutional analysis shows that liberal inclusive policies contribute to both status and skill development, and enhance the efficiency of waste collectors in collecting secondary raw materials. International organizations help developing countries move to more sustainable development models by providing financial and technological assistance, and their impact on the environmental policy environment is increasing, and the demand for sustainable management is growing. Along with the growing interest in environmental rights and interests in the public mind, the democratization of institutions will increase and this argues for the re-conceptualization of solid waste management systems that can integrate waste pickers as partners, building justice, providing inclusive and sustainable cities. The social history of wastepickers can show how possible to use social movement resource that can be transforming social policy, and how social resource can be environmental effective.
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ENVIRONMETAL SOCIAL HISTORY AND ROLE OF WASTEPICKERS OCCUPATION IN CIRCULAR ECONOMY
Ermolaeva Yu.V.
Federal center of theoretical and applied sociology of the Russian Academy of sciences
The article analyzes the history of the transformation of waste collectors' activities, the process creating a chains of exchange between the state and collectors, their status and autonomy, that completely depends from the institution of environmental control and the distribution of roles. The sociobiological role of the waste collector is becoming more and more acute in the context of global environmental inequality and on the path of the circular economy transition. In different periods of history, the need of the state and municipalities for collectors varied, the more valued secondary raw materials in ecological-oriented cultures, the more steps were created in the hierarchy of waste collectors with a free degree of activity and, accordingly, the more opportunities they have to return secondary resources to the material flow. Previously, their skills and status could be inherited without involving in the institution of education. In the twentieth century. environmental disasters are fueling the emergence of green professions of varying quality of skills, and the demand for them will grow. In other hands, self-employed collectors may face legal restrictions on their activities. Professional and craft communities engaged in the collection and processing of waste are being strengthened, the activities of which are regulated by an ethical and ecological complex of sustainable development with the possibility of growth.
Keywords: circular economy, green economy, sociology of professions, anthropology of professions, waste management, waste pickers.
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