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УДК 502/504:33(045) JEL Classification Q50. Q58
Tatiana Smetanina, Pedro Pintassilgo, António Matias
ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT TOOLS: INTERNATIONAL PRACTICIES FOR RUSSIA
This article deals with the basic tools of environmental management applied by developed countries and discusses its application to Russia. The focus is on environmental management instruments such as environmental taxes, subsidies, standards, permits and also on the important role of voluntary tools. Russian practice is analyzed in terms of the current environmental management situation and the prospects of necessary legislative actions. The article refers to the formation of the basic parts of environmental policy in Russia, environmental management systems, environmental quality standards and environmental education.
Keywords: Environmental management, environmental management tools-taxes, permits, subsidies, environmental legislation.
Introduction
Globalization of the world economic system confronts mankind with the urgent task of harmonizing the economic needs of the people with the respect for nature and the needs of future generations. Moreover, the present stage of social development also demands a comprehensive protection of environment.
International cooperation, exchange of knowledge, technology and experience are very important factors in the solution of global problems. The work in this direction allows members of different cultures to understand each other better, promotes the development of tolerance, mutual respect and ultimately serves to advance the cause of sustainable economic development in practice. International cooperation in this field is a cornerstone of a healthy and safe Global Economic System.
Culture and economy, let alone the environment, are sometimes viewed as separated points. However, it becomes more and more necessary to focus precisely on the cultural side of the economic development, because it is the high personal and moral level of the individuals that could be regarded as the basis for the formation of a Sustainable Economic Future.
Reforming the economy towards greening is a vital issue for Russia. Bridging the technological gap in the field of environment, natural resources and waste management is a primary challenge for the country. The reliance on international agreements, formation of necessary legal framework, adapting the experience of developed countries in the legal field (including the environmental regulations and tools) are obligatory components for the development of environmental policy in Russia.
The world's practice of environmental management is very important for Russia as European countries and North America have already gained a substantial experience in this field. Due to the extension of its territory, the regional aspects of environmental management play a key role in Russia. On this basis, the article examines the possible tools for environmental management in Russian Federation taking into account international practices.
Tools for environmental management
Environmental economics
There is no commonly accepted definition of environmental economics.
"The sub-discipline of environmental economics sits on the boundaries of range of social science and natural science disciplines (Pearce and Turner, 1990)".
Pearce and Turner (1990) consider economic development as a process that depends on the environment and is also a source of change to the environment. Field (1997) regards Environmental Economics as the application of principles of economics to the study of how environmental resources are developed and managed. "It focuses primarily on how and why people make decisions that have consequences for the natural environment. It is concerned also with how economic institution and policies can be changed to bring these environmental impacts more into balance with human desires and the needs of the ecosystem itself' (Field, 1997).
Generally Environmental Economics is concerned with economic interrelationships between mankind and the environment. It involves also the study of the impact of economic activity on the environment as well as the influence of the environment on economic activity and human welfare (Tisdell, 1994).
According to Tietenberg, "economics has two rather different means of enhancing understanding of environmental and natural resource economics. Positive economics is useful in describing the actions of people and the impact of those actions on environmental assets. Normative economics can provide guidance on how optimal service flows can be defined and achieved" (Tietenberg, 1996).
Environmental and ecosystem management
The Business Dictionary (2013) provides the following definition of Environmental Management: "Administrative functions that develop, implement, and monitor the environmental policy of an organization". It can be viewed as an integrated mechanism that implements the main goals of Sustainable Development.
The definitions of ecosystem management are vague (Lackey, 1998). The principles of ecosystem management define and bound the concept and provide its operational meaning: ecosystem management reflects a stage of social values in continuous evolution; it should take advantage of the ability of ecosystems to respond to a variety of stressors, natural and man-made; ecosystem management may result in emphasis on biological diversity; scientific information is important for its effectiveness (Lackey, 1998).
Some scientists are very critical about the possibility of ecosystem management. "Man's efforts to manage ecosystems can be viewed as weak experiments testing a general hypothesis of stability/resilience" (Holling, 1997). Ecosystem Management can be viewed more as a process that aims to conserve major ecological services and restore natural resources while meeting the socioeconomic, political and cultural needs of current and future generations (Brussard, Reed and Tracy, 1998).
The principal objective of Ecosystem Management is the ethical use of natural resources. It is an approach that attempts to involve all stakeholders in defining sustainable alternatives for the interactions of people and the environments in which they live. It adopts a combination of numerous established ecological concepts and principles (Szaro, Sexton and Malone, 1998).
The best-known environmental management tools
Different approaches to the effective Ecosystem Management involve a variety of management methods: Adaptive, Natural Resource and Strategic Management, Command and Control, although all of these types can be considered as parts of a Unified Management System.
The best-known environmental management and environmental performance improvement tools are the Cleaner Production (CP), Environmental Accounting (EAc), Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), Life Cycle Screening (LCS), Life Cycle Costing (LCC), Material, Energy and Toxic-analysis (MET), Material Input per Service Unit (MIPS), Design for the Environment (DfE), Environmental Auditing (EA), Environmental Performance Evaluation (EPE), Environmental Management Systems (EMS). There are no direct boundaries between these levels: tools placed at one level may be appropriate also at other levels as well (Fet, 1998).
The above mentioned instruments are described in details in many theoretical sources and each of them deserves certain particular attention.
We set out to analyze the practical components of macro-economic environmental management tools used in the formation of public policy. We focus on environmental management instruments such as taxes, subsidies, standards, permits and also take into account the important role of voluntary tools.
Environmental management in developed countries
Environmental taxes
Environmental taxes are one of the main practical tools for environmental protection. Many of the classic scientific sources include the studies on the use of environmental taxes (Heine, Norregaard and Parry, IMF, 2012).
Environmental tax revenues (primarily taxes on motor fuels and vehicles) constitute approximately 310 percent of total tax revenues in typical OECD countries. Environmental tax reforms spread in countries such as the Netherlands, United Kingdom, Germany, and is now under the serious consideration in developing countries, such as China, Vietnam, Cambodia, Thailand, South Africa and Tunisia. The International
Monetary Fund is providing an increasing amount of technical assistance on environmental tax issues (Heine, 2012).
Direct taxes on emissions are economically efficient because for polluters have an incentive to reduce their pollution up to the point where further reduction would cost more than paying the tax, and to do so in the least costly way. However, indirect taxes, such as taxes on related goods, or alternative policies, such as mandated technology standards, cannot reduce pollution in the least costly way. "For example, imposing a higher gasoline tax to reduce the environmental damage from automobile emissions gives drivers no incentive to maintain their cars' pollution control equipment, and mandating pollution control equipment provides no incentive to drive less" (Levinson, 2007).
The system of Tradable permit schemes is another alternative to emissions taxes. These schemes limit the quantity of allowable emissions by issuing a fixed quantity of emissions permits, which polluters may then trade among themselves (Levinson, 2007). Examples of such schemes are the acid rain provisions of the U.S. Clean Air Act (Clean Air Act, 2008) and the European Union's Greenhouse Gas Emission Trading Scheme (EU ETS, European Commission, 2013).
"The EU emissions trading system is a cornerstone of the European Union's policy to combat climate change and it is a key tool for reducing industrial greenhouse gas emissions cost-effectively. The EU ETS is the first - and still by far the biggest - international system for trading greenhouse gas emission allowances, tand covers more than 11,000 power stations and industrial plants in 31 countries, as well as airlines" (EU ETS, European Comission, 2013). It is necessary to point out that in 2013 more than 40% of allowances will be auctioned, and this share will rise progressively each year.
At the same time European Commission also notes the complexity of this system in the context of the economic crisis and the need to discuss some points on structural measures which could provide a sustainable solution in this area for the future.
According to EPA, the Cap-and-Trade Program will reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from major sources (covered entities) by setting a firm cap on statewide GHG emissions. Some covered entities will be allocated some allowances and will be able to buy additional allowances at auction, purchase allowances from others, or purchase offset credits (EPA, 2012).
Table 1 shows the key points on the similarities and differences of economic instruments to limit emissions and environmental pollution in Europe and USA.
Table 1
The main points of green taxes and programs: the case of USA and Europe
Taxes, agreements and programs USA Europe
Taxes of emissions of common air pollutants Ozone-depleting substances Sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides
Energy taxes The lowest energy taxes Energy products, motor vehicle
Agriculture taxes Fertilizers and pesticides
Waste and environment levy (-ies)
Transport taxes «Gaz guzzler» (new cars) Variety of transport
Agreements and programs "Cap-and-trade" system
-Acid Rain Program (EPA) -Clean Air Act's New Source Performance Standards (NSPS) - Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) standards for automobiles EU emissions trading system (EU ETS)
Fees and charges
The United States has had greater freedom to use tax expenditures than the European member states. However, it has nothing comparable to the European Union's state aid rules, which impose a formal discipline on the circumstances in which member states can provide tax subsidies for environmental protection (Milne, 2007).
According to Milne (2007), the double-dividend theory (known as ecological tax reform) recommends the use of environmental taxes to reduce some existing tax burden, such as taxes on labor that may be dampening the economy. The environmental tax would produce environmental and economic dividends. According to this theory, environmental taxes lead to environmentally benefits and economically efficiency. Some green taxes fit well in this theory but given the challenges such as identifying and enacting the exact external cost for internalization are difficult to implement (Milne, 2003).
Fig. 1. Revenues from environmentally related taxes in per cent of GDP Source: European Environmental Agency, 2012
The European Environmental Agency (2012) highlights the most informative questions "on instruments used in environmental policy" in developed countries: Environmentally Related Taxes (specific taxbase, tax rates, exemption details, fees and charges), Tradable Permit Systems, Deposit-Refund Systems, Environmentally Motivated Subsidies and Voluntary Approaches.
Fig. 2. Revenues from environmentally related taxes across OECD countries Source: European Environmental Agency, 2012
The revenues from environmentally related taxes declined on average in OECD countries in recent years when measured in per cent of GDP (Fig. 1, 2). The level and rate of environmental taxation varies across the countries (Fig. 1). But any comparison should be done carefully: for instance, low revenues from environmental taxes could signal relatively low environmental tax rates, or could result from higher tax rates that have had the effect of changing behavioral patterns among producers and consumers. Higher levels of environmental tax revenue could be connected with individuals or businesses purchasing taxed products outside of their country of residence if the tax rates abroad are lower than in their domestic market (one of examples is crossing a border to purchase petrol or diesel) (Eurostat, 2012).
The highest share of environmental taxes in 2010 in the total revenue from taxes and social contributions was recorded in Bulgaria (10.7 %). Latvia also had a relatively high share (8.8 %). Denmark (4.0 %) headed the ranking for the relative importance of environmental taxes as a share of GDP. Estonia has the fifth highest ratio (3.0 %). At the other end of the scale, France, Spain and to a lesser extent Belgium recorded relatively low levels of revenue derived from environmental taxes, as well as Iceland (Eurostat, 2012).
Figure 3 illustrates clearly that developments in the share of revenues from environmentally related taxes in GDP are closely linked to developments in international prices of motor vehicle fuels, for example here by the whole-sale price of petrol in Rotterdam. High international fuel prices cause substitution away from use of such fuels, and as motor fuels are taxed more heavily than most other goods and services, this contributes to a reduction in the revenues from environmentally related taxes as a share of GDP (Eurostat, 2012). We can see that when international fuel prices decreased significantly from 2008 to 2009, the revenues stemming from taxes on energy products (including motor vehicle fuels) increased significantly as a percentage of GDP.
Fig. 3. Average revenues in per cent of GDP, by tax-base category; and international petrol prices, OECD.
Source: European Environmental Agency, 2012
It is necessary to add that the policy instruments for taking measures to meet international commitments of environmental protection are extremely diverse (Fullerton, Leicester, Smith, 2007):
- Regulations on fuel efficiency of vehicles, appliances and other policy measures to stimulate greater energy efficiency.
- Energy pricing measures, including carbon taxes in at least five European countries (Finland, Sweden, Norway, Denmark and the Netherlands) and energy taxes in others (including the UK Climate Change Levy).
- Emissions trading schemes, in the UK, Denmark, Canada and the EU.
- Voluntary agreements between industry and government (including the UK's Climate Change Agreements).
- Policies to stimulate research, development and diffusion of low-carbon energy technologies (through R&D subsidies for renewables).
- Joint implementation deals, to support emissions reductions in other countries where abatement is less costly.
'Command- and- control'philosophy
Traditionally, in all the industrial economies, regulatory instruments have formed the basic foundations of environmental protection policy. Environmental legislation has been implemented via regulatory instruments coupled with systems of monitoring and sanctioning of non-compliance. This "regulative tradition" has involved the setting of ambient air and water quality standards or objectives/targets, and the imposition of emission/discharge limits and/or product or process standards, through a system of licensing and monitoring. Polluters' compliance is mandatory and sanctions often exist for non-compliance...
Different countries have adopted different approaches to the problem of relating emission/discharge standards to the ambient environmental goals. The following specifications cover most of the approaches that have been taken: limits in terms of maximum rate of discharge from a pollution source;
specification of given degree of pollution control, e.g. percentage removal of all particulates from the emissions; requirement to implement some variant of 'best practicable means', or 'best available control technology' for
pollution reduction; polluting density limits related to discharges/emissions; discharge bans related to pollution concentration measures or damage costs;
discharge limits set by reference to use of specified inputs or outputs from the production process"._
Source: Pearce and Turner (1990). P. 161-162.
A command- and- control (CAC) approach to public policy is one where, in order to bring about behavior thought to be socially desirable, political authorities simply mandate the behavior in law, then use whatever enforcement machinery (courts, police, fines) are necessary to get people to obey the law. The command-and-control approach consists of relying on standards of various types to bring about improvements in environmental quality. In general, a standard is viewed as a mandated level of performance that is enforced in law. "The spirit of standard is, if you want people not to do something, simply pass a law that makes illegal, then send out the authorities to enforce the law" (Field, 1997).
Below we give an example of the classification of strengths and weaknesses of the 'command and control' mechanism. As it is discussed in Section 4, the weaknesses of 'CAC' are very pronounced at all the stages of implementation.
Table 2
Strengths and weaknesses of 'command and control' tools
Weaknesses Strengths
Enforcement is not easy Dependability
Universal rules do not work Clarity
Absence of incentives Fosters new technologies
Proliferation of laws Major driver of private-sector compliance
Often media specific Compliance or non-compliance is readily detectable
Difficult to perform across all the cycle phases Works well for: Single media issues Control of point-source emissions Waste management Protection of endangered species
Depends on politicians to prosecute
Source: Nel and Wessels (2010).
Environmental permits
Environmental Permitting is one of the most effective environmental policy tools managed by states and associations of states. The idea of pollution permits was introduced by J. Dales (1968). The regulating authority allows only a certain level of pollutant emissions and issues permits (pollution 'consents' or certificates) for this amount. However, whereas standard-setting ends there, the pollution permits are tradable, they can be bought and sold on a permit market (Pearce and Turner, 1990).
Industrial production processes account for a considerable share of the overall pollution in Europe (for emissions of greenhouse gases and acidifying substances, wastewater emissions and waste). The Europe Union has adopted in 1996 a set of common rules for permitting and controlling industrial installations in the IPPC Directive (Directive 96/61/EC). The IPPC Directive has been codified (Directive 2008/1/EC).
"The IPPC Directive is based on several principles, namely (1) an integrated approach, (2) best available techniques, (3) flexibility and (4) public participation.
The integrated approach means that the permits must take into account the whole environmental performance of the plant, covering e.g. emissions to air, water and land, generation of waste, use of raw materials, energy efficiency, noise, prevention of accidents, and restoration of the site upon closure. The purpose of the Directive is to ensure a high level of protection of the environment taken as a whole.
The permit conditions including emission limit values (ELVs) must be based on Best Available_Techniques (BAT), as defined in the IPPC Directive. To assist the licensing authorities and companies to determine BAT, the Commission organizes an exchange of information between experts from the EU Member States, industry and environmental organizations. This results in the adoption and publication by the Commission of the BAT Reference Documents (the so-called BREFs).
The IPPC Directive contains elements of flexibility by allowing the licensing authorities, in determining permit
conditions, to take into account:
the technical characteristics of the installation,
its geographical location,
local environmental conditions.
The Directive ensures that the public has a right to participate in the decision making process, and to be informed
of its consequences, by having access to permit applications in order to give
opinions,
permits,
results of the monitoring of releases.
In European Pollutant Release and Transfer Register (E-PRTR), emission data reported by Member States are made accessible in a public register, which is intended to provide environmental information on major industrial activities. E-PRTR has replaced the previous EU-wide pollutant inventory, the so-called European Pollutant Emission Register (EPER)".
Source: The IPPC Directive: Summary of Directive 2008. http://ec.europa.eu/environment/air/pollutants/stationary/ippc/summary.htm
It is known that the competent authorities of the European Union are working hard to ensure that the information base on pollution and pollutants is comprehensive and transparent.
For instance, the European Pollutant Release and Transfer Register (E-PRTR) is the new Europe-wide register that provides easily accessible key environmental data from industrial facilities in European Union Member States and in Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway, Serbia and Switzerland. It replaces and improves upon the previous European Pollutant Emission Register (EPER).
We should emphasize the importance of the work described above, since the publicity and control are very important tools in promoting environmental progress. It is important for all states and associations of states, regardless of their political ambitions and devices.
The new register contains data reported annually by some 28,000 industrial facilities covering 65 economic activities across Europe.
For each facility, information is provided concerning the amounts of pollutant releases to air, water and land as well as off-site transfers of waste and of pollutants in waste water from a list of 91 key pollutants including heavy metals, pesticides, greenhouse gases and dioxins for years 2007 to 2010. Some information on releases from diffuse sources is also available and will be gradually enhanced.
The register contributes to transparency and public participation in environmental decision-making. It implements for the European Community the UNECE (United Nations Economic Commission for Europe) PRTR Protocol to the Aarhus Convention on Access to Information, Public Participation in Decision-making and Access to Justice in Environmental Matters.
Source: Welcome to E-PRTR. European Environmental Agency. http://prtr.ec.europa.eu/
Subsidies
There is no universally accepted definition of a subsidy (OECD, 2006) in economic issues, so we can find several definitions and the one that a particular study uses is dependent on the perspective from which it is written and on the purpose of the analysis contained therein (EHS, 2008).
Different types of subsidies can be found in the energy, transport and water sectors, as well as in other sectors of the economy. There are different types of subsidies, such as grants, soft loans, and others.
The European Environment Agency has an informative basis for subsidies used in the group of developed countries. Information on United Kingdom is the most complete. Grant Programs are used to funding the development of low-carbon energy and energy efficiency technologies. This includes: Energy Efficiency Design Awards to encourage innovation in designing energy saving solutions for existing homes in order to reduce both bills and emissions - particular focus was on hard-to-heat housing; Management Agreement Payments for owners to compensate for foregone profits; Farm Waste Treatment Facilities; Subsidies for Wildlife and Woodlands; Community Energy Saving Program - CESP; and grants for development of offshore wind technologies.
There is also a vast set of Tax Reduction measures in the UK: land tax exemption for zero-carbon homes; enhanced capital allowance for water-saving investments; enhanced capital allowances for energy-saving technologies; landlord's energy-saving allowance; reduced VAT-rate for energy-saving materials permanently installed in residential or charity premises. Soft Loans are also in place (Scotland - Boiler Scrappage Scheme, Community and Renewable Energy scheme, etc.) as well as other measures (Feed-in tariff scheme for renewable energy sources; solar collectors; the England Rural Development Program).
Competent policy of subsidizing activities in the field of environmental protection is important. As any system, it has to be improved over time, with the aim of subsidizing the most efficient processes. Grant programs and softs loan are also tools to support the development of some areas. The main question is how to arrange the correct subsidies as the fiscal (budget) resources are always limited.
EU voluntary environmental protection instruments
Three voluntary instruments have been developed, adopted and refined by the Europe Union: The Eco-Management and Audit Scheme (EMAS), the European Eco-Label and Green Public Procurement.
They anticipated the integrated product policy (IPP) approach launched by the European Commission in 2003. The IPP advocates a life-cycle approach taking into account the environmental impact at every stage, "from cradle to grave". It is also intended to stimulate implementation of EU environmental legislation through voluntary practices and consensus building, with full involvement of all the stakeholders concerned (industry, local authorities, non-governmental organizations) (EU voluntary environmental protection, PressReleases, 2006).
In 2004, two EU directives revised European rules for public procurement (Directive 2004/18]), offering scope for the contracting authorities to consider social, employment, ethical and environmental issues. Technical specifications may include environmental characteristics. For this purpose, the contracting authorities may use requirements contained in the European Eco-label regulation, through a procedure involving all relevant stakeholders and based on scientific data (EU voluntary environmental protection, Press-Releases, 2006).
The ISO 14000 family addresses various aspects of environmental management and provides the practical tools for companies and organizations looking to identify and control their environmental impact and constantly improve their environmental performance. It is known that ISO 14001:2004 and ISO 14004:2004 focus on environmental management systems. The other standards in the family focus on specific environmental aspects such as life cycle analysis, communication and auditing (ISO Portal, 2013).
Among the advantages of this system ISO 14001:2004 are the following:
- costs reduced of waste management;
- savings in consumption of energy and materials;
- lower costs of distribution;
- improved corporate image among regulators, customers and the public (ISO Portal, 2013).
Generally, we can say that two systems (ISO and EMAS) are complementary but EMAS is more rigorous in some areas. In fact EMAS continues to be seen as more prestigious than EN ISO 14001:2004 in many EU Member States.
Compliance and enforcement
It should be noted, that despite the available tools for competent environmental policy, community of developed countries have the numerous problems in this area (OECD, 2013).
Despite good progress in developing environmental laws and policies, there is a growing evidence that OECD countries are generally not on track to achieve some of their key environmental goals. One of the main reasons is the implementation gap that exists between policy objectives and performance (OECD, Executive Summary, 2009; OECD, Environmental Outlook, 2012).
It is necessary to reflect the work of OECD in the direction of closing this gap (between the theory of environmental policy and the actual state of affairs). The work of OECD on environmental compliance assurance - promotion, monitoring and enforcement - has been under the way since 2007.
Table 3
The main reporting and analytical documents of OECD on environmental compliance, 2009 - 2011 years
Analysis of key global trends and good practices
"Ensuring Environmental Compliance: Trends and Good Prac-tices"(2009) The policy makers, environmental regulators, design and implementation of government programs to ensure compliance with pollution prevention and control regulations. The report identifies "good practices" observed in OECD members and the US
Outcome indicators of compliance assurance activities
"Outcome Performance Measures of Environmental Compliance Assurance: Current Practices, Constraints and Ways Forward" (2010) The experience of ten OECD countries in the design and implementation of quantitative indicators used to assess the outcomes of environmental enforcement authorities' efforts to ensure compliance with pollution prevention and control regulations. (This work will continue in 2013-14)
National consistency of environmental enforcement
"Environmental Enforcement in Decentralized Governance Systems: Toward a Nationwide Level Playing Field"(2011) The environmental compliance monitoring and enforcement in several OECD countries with decentralized systems of environmental governance. Strategies and instruments for promoting consistency in the implementation of national environmental law
Regulating and promoting compliance of SMEs
"Green Transformation of Small Businesses: Achieving and Going Beyond Environmental Requirements" (2012) Promoting of green business practices among small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs)
Source: OECD (2013).
Management plan 2012
The EU Strategy recognizes that future economic growth has to be achieved in the context of increased resource constraints and rising resource prices. "Environment policy has a vital role to play in this transition: paying more attention to the limits imposed by the Earth's natural resources and the needs of future generations will also create more growth opportunities, jobs and income. Transforming our economy to derive more value both by using fewer materials and through smarter consumption will require substantial research efforts, bringing eco-innovation to the markets and rising consumer awareness. This applies to fields as diverse as industry, energy, agriculture, fisheries and transport. To maximize their impact in this transition to more sustainable growth, environmental measures have to be applied in timely, predictable and controlled manner (EC, Management Plan 2012, p. 3)".
The main objectives, identified by the DG Environment, are (EC, Management Plan, 2012):
- to contribute to a high level of quality of life and well-being for citizens, by aiming to secure an environment where the level of pollution does not give rise to harmful effects either on human health or on the environment and by supporting the development of a greener and more resource efficient economy;
- to ensure a high level of environmental protection by promoting measures at international level to deal with regional or worldwide environmental problems;
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2014. Вып. 1 ЭКОНОМИКА И ПРАВО
- to preserve, protect and improve the quality of the environment by promoting and supporting the implementation of environmental legislation and the integration of environmental protection requirements into the definition and implementation of other EU policies and activities, with a view to promoting sustainable development.
It is clear that an environmental management system should primarily consider the prospects of development of urban areas. The European Commission has paid special attention to this issue. Thematic Strategy on the Urban Environment described the problems facing many urban areas of the European Union and recognized the widely divergent circumstances of European cities (EC, IEM, 2007).
It is very important that national and regional authorities support municipalities in achieving more integrated management at the local level. Integrated approach is supported by both of the Council and the European Parliament (EP Resolution, 2006). Integrated approach includes long-term strategic visions and link different policies at different administrative levels to ensure its coherence (EC, IEM, 2007).
"Integrated environmental management is entirely consistent with the Lisbon Strategy for innovation, competitiveness, growth and employment and experience demonstrates that establishing a system of IEM can help to promote the objectives of sustainability" (OECD, Padoan, 2009).
Benefits of an IEM system should include some or all of the following:
- achieve compliance and cost-effectiveness of different policy measures,
- improved reputation and "competitiveness" of the city (local authority),
- enhanced environmental awareness of citizen, local authority staff and stakeholders,
- enhanced partnership and communication between the citizens and the leaders of the city, creating networks,
- cost savings through reduced resources and utilities, improving economic competitiveness through cutting costs,
- harmonization of reporting responsibilities,
- contribute to national and European objectives on the Environment and Lisbon Strategy to 'make Europe' a more attractive place to work and invest' (EC, IEM, p. 8).
Forming the system of regional environmental management in Russia: Problems and Prospects
The real situation
Russia occupies 69th place in the world regarding the environmental situation, according to a ranking by the Yale University (there are 163 seats total) (Y ale Center, 2011).
The ecological situation in the Russian Federation is characterized by a high level of human impact on natural ecosystems. There are 40 regions of the Russian Federation (and more than 54% of the urban population) that are exposed to high and very high air pollution. The volume of waste water without treatment remains high. Most regions of Russia face a tendency of soil and land deterioration. These processes are developing rapidly and lead to fertility loss of agricultural land. Desertification affects more than 100 million hectares in 27 regions of the Russian Federation. The amount of waste not recycled and increases constantly and its storage and disposal do not ensure compliance with environmental safety requirements. Moreover, past economic activity caused environmental damage in vast areas (The basis for state policy in the field of environmental development of Russia until 2030. April 13, 2012).
Environmental policy and its regulation in Russia continue to suffer from an important implementation gap. "Many unfeasible or unenforceable rules are still in force. Economic instruments remained ineffective in changing environmental behavior. The compliance strategies continued to rely on the "check and punish" approach. While regulatory requirements are contradictory and unrealistic, the emphasis placed on "compliance with rules" hinders the acceptance of regulation and lowers credibility of the government. Furthermore, environmental authorities have been subject to multiple reorganization and ever-increasing fragmentation since the late 1990s brought them to the edge of institutional paralysis" (Environmental Policy and Regulation in Russia, OECD, 2006, p. 5).
Currently the main key power structures in the federal environmental protection are the Ministry of Natural Resources and Ecology of the Russian Federation, Rostekhnadzor (the Federal Service for Environmental, Technological and Nuclear Supervision) and Rosprirodnadzor (the Federal Service for Supervision of Natural Resources).
Some of the management functions for the protection of the environment belong to the territorial governments (administrations). But a clear line of interaction and distribution of power is still not accomplished in Russia, and this is the main problem as well as coordination of activities of existing units.
The current Russian environmental legislation does not meet the real needs of economic life. The work on the formation of a new legal system is voluminous in size and is moving rather slowly. Adapting the Western legislation to Russian conditions is not an easy task. The specifics of the Russian economy, the terms of business entities and the lack of legal culture in the field of ecology require certain steps to deepen and clarify the rules generated. In this line, the Government intends to apply fundamental innovations in the field of environmental law by 2020.
Environmental policy statements are a very important management tool, but they are difficult to design and implement.
These statements often include three different but related components characterized by increasing levels of detail. The first is a mission, vision or environmental philosophy statement for the institution. This statement is usually stated in one or two sentences, one page at most.
The second level is a set of environmental policies which commit the institution to specific actions, specific outcomes and, wherever possible, some form elf accountability for all environmental concerns.
The third level is environmental practice manuals which provide detailed information on how specific actions are to be carried out .
Dixon Thompson and Serena van Bakel (1995). P. 21-22.
TOOLS
Environmental quality standards
The existing Russian system of evaluation and compensation of pollution is based on the determination of Maximum Allowable Concentrations of substances (MAC), the ratios are calculated on the basis of mathematical models. To control their in practice is very difficult. While in European countries for example monitor from 10 to 60 indicators of air pollution, compliance with Russian standards requires dynamic control of more than 2,000 substances what's obviously not achievable and causes violation (Terentyeva, 2011).
Most of existing environmental quality standards in Russia were inherited from the Soviet Union. "By 2003, there were 2,259 MACs (Maximum Allowable Concentration) and 494 TSELs (Tentatively Safe Expose Levels) for the working area air; 625 MACs and 1,945 TSELs for ambient air; 1,343 MACs and 402 "tentatively allowable levels" for domestic and drinking water supply; 1,113 MACs and 100 TSELs for fishing waters; 110 MACs and 71 "tentatively allowable concentrations" for soil; as well as several thousand MACs for chemical elements in foodstuffs. There are also standards for use of natural resources and hazardous physical impact and exposure to radiation" (OECD, Environmental Policy and Regulation in Russia, 2006).
Some Russian specialists suppose that the PDVV system (known as "maximum allowable hazardous impact") is inconsistent, inflexible and cannot be used as a management tool.
Taxes and Permitting
In Russia, environmental taxes and fines are not well developed. Industrialists, facing the symbolic amount of fines, often prefer to pay them instead of adhering strictly to the regulations on emissions. The collected fines received by the consolidated budget of the Russian Federation for the period 2004-2011 increased by only 881,668 rubles (22,000 euro) (BFM.RU, 2012).
The system of environmental licensing in Russia is undergoing reforms (permitting of natural resources and pollution) including use of mineral and biological resources, soil protection, and continent shelf activities.
Renovating and changing the existing system is necessary. Concrete measures to improve the existing environmental permitting and enforcement system are:
1. A revision of the legislation relating to economic activities and elimination of artificially created bureaucratic barriers to reduce the vulnerability of the system to corruption.
2. Federal law "On State Environmental Expertise" must be amended to include the provision for the state environmental expertise as a service provided free of charge to the applying companies. This activity should be paid from the state budget.
3. The installations subject to the state environmental expertise must be classified by the level of their negative impact on the environment in accordance with clearly defined criteria.
4. Requirements regarding documentation for submission to the state environmental expertise should be revised to alleviate the need for the applicant to obtain design documents from various agencies (authorities). It should be based on the opinion of the competent government experts, funded from the budget.
5. The system for setting emission limit values has to be revised. The basic principle for setting the permissible levels of environmental impact has to be the conformity of the industrial facility to Best Available Techniques (BAT). The list of polluting substances to be controlled should be reduced.
6. All releases of polluting substances to air, water and soil that exceed the set limit values have to be classified as negative impacts for which the polluters must be charged accordingly.
7. Industrial enterprises whose activities cause adverse impacts on the environment should be required to develop and implement a phased program to reduce negative effects on the environment during their transition to the best available techniques. The regulatory role of the state should be limited to monitoring compliance with these programs.
8. Environmental charges should fund programs for the transition to BAT. This is in the interests of the state and citizens (Lutsenko and Gratchev, 2004).
BAT prospects
The transition from the MAC to the practice of Best Available Techniques (BAT) is an obvious advantage because technological modernization can provide a new level of industrial progress and public safety (Boravskaya, 2011; Smetanina, 2013).
The Ministry of Natural Resources has stated that all the necessary documentation will be completed in 2014. In 2016, it plans to ban the design of enterprises which do not meet BAT and by 2020 there will be restrictions for existing facilities. Before this period fees on negatives impacts on the environment will increase in order to foster and promote the use of BAT (Terentyeva, 2011; The Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment of the Russian Federation, 2011).
The State Duma is planning to consider a bill that would legalize the economic incentives and coercive measures to encourage enterprises to implement economically viable technologies that can minimize the waste production. However, businesses have reacted to the introduction of new technologies with suspicion (Buharova, 2012).
The concept of BAT was introduced in Federal Act (Law) "On Environmental Protection" in 2002 (2002, № 7-FZ). In 2003 the state standardization system of the Russian Federation brought the national standards of environmental protection. However, the concept of BAT in domestic legislation was only declared, as there is lack of control over compliance on environmental technology standards.
Planned legislative measures include an increase in payments for negative impacts on the environment for enterprises avoiding the transition to BAT. For enterprises transitioning to BAT, the payments will be reduced by 70%, and after the implementation of BAT reduced by half.
The principles of valuation will be set for all businesses alike. However, businesses are not eager to implement BAT because the documents have no sources for funding the new technologies. It turns out that businesses will have to spend their own funds to upgrade, for instance, sewage treatment plants.
Waste production
The issue of waste production is very important for Russia, as the vast majority of domestic and industrial waste is just transported to the waste storage and is not recycled. This situation requires special programs that promote the separation, collection and recycling of waste, as well as investments in the construction of waste treatment plants. A few reasons can be pointed out for the poor results in the field of waste management:
- there is no effective waste management strategy encompassing the different levels of public administration and the local government in the Russian Federation;
- the Federal Law "On Environmental Protection" (Jan. 10, 2002, № 7-FZ, eds. Dec. 7, 2011) and "On Production and Consumption" (June 24, 1998, № 89-FZ, eds. Nov. 21, 2011) do not provide the necessary
incentive mechanisms that could contribute to greater involvement of the private sector in the collection and recycling of waste;
- although some laws and regulations focus on the prevention of waste and the reuse and recycling, generally the Russian legislation does not contain a clear set of requirements designed to minimize the waste disposal in landfills and does not create favorable conditions for the development preferred methods of waste treatment management;
- the requirements for using the best available technologies and the best practice approaches are not integrated into the current Russian legislation, and the incentives for their implementation are not available;
- draft legislation establishing the requirements and incentives for management of packaging waste has been discussed within the last years, but they have not been implemented yet;
- lack of coherent and effective public awareness programs prevents public involvement in the collection of household waste and its trade as a secondary raw material (e.g. Russia - EU: Partnership for modernization in waste management: International Conference, Moscow, 24-25 May 2012).
Voluntary environmental management tools
A preliminary environmental assessment precedes the decision on the implementation of the Environmental Management Systems (EMS) in many Russian enterprises. Promotion of the standards ISO 14000, training managers and staff of the company and development of guidelines is carried out through domestic consulting firms and research institutions such as universities and non-governmental organizations. The quality of materials, the adequacy of the information and the motivations of these organizations vary within wide ranges. However, the absence of explicit governmental policy and support for environmental management systems in accordance with international principles leads, in many cases, to the incorrect use of this tool and to miss of opportunities (Daiman, 2004).
The main problems of dissemination the environmental management in Russia are:
- the low level of general management in the enterprises;
- narrow understanding of environmental management systems by enterprises;
- misunderstanding the nature of standards for EMS;
- the absence of internationally recognized certification EMS in Russia.
Due to the fact that Russia faces many problems related to the environment, there was a need to determine the baseline of the country in the field of environmental protection and the relevant current requests. By order of the President of the Russian Federation the work at the document "Fundamentals (Basis) of Environmental Policy" started in 2010.
The basis of environmental policy in Russia
t„ environmental policy of the Russian Federation is based on the Constitution of the Russian Federation, on the Russian legislation and on international instruments including policy documents, such as:
- presidential Decree of June 4, 2009 № 889 "On some measures to improve the energy and environmental efficiency of the Russian economy";
- the Concept of long-term socio-economic development of the Russian Federation for the period up to 2020 (2008);
- the National Security Strategy of the Russian Federation until 2020 (2009);
- the Concept of Russian Federation's transition to Sustainable development (1996);
- environmental Doctrine of the Russian Federation (2002);
- climate Doctrine of the Russian Federation (2009);
- the Energy Strategy of Russia until 2030 (2009);
- the Water Strategy of the Russian Federation for the period up to 2020 (2009);
- fundamentals of the State Policy of the Russian Federation in the Arctic for the period up to 2020 and Beyond (2008);
- solutions of UN Conferences on Environment and Development (Rio de Janeiro, 1992, 2012) and on Sustainable Development (Johannesburg, 2002);
- other legal acts determining policy (The basis for state policy in the field of environmental development of Russia until 2030. April 30. 2012).
"Basis of Ecological Policy of the Russian Federation" determines the strategic goal, the main objectives and mechanisms of long-term action of the State and society to ensure environmental security and the
realization of the constitutional right of citizens to a healthy environment. The implementation of environmental policy in the Russian Federation, the achievement of strategic objectives and solutions of the key questions should provide the effectiveness of state authorities in collaboration with businesses and other organizations.
For the implementation of the environmental policy of the Russian Federation for the period up to 2030 it will be required to prepare and to adopt a number of Legislative Acts:
- on Amendments to the separate Legislative Acts of the Russian Federation "(in terms of improving the system of regulation in the field of environmental protection and the introduction of economic incentives for economic agents to implement the best technologies)";
- "On Amendments to the Federal Law" On Waste of Production and Consumption "and other legislative acts of the Russian Federation" (in terms of economic stimulus activities in waste management);
- "On Amendments to the Federal Law On Specially Protected Natural Territories" "and some legislative acts of the Russian Federation";
- "On Amendments to the separate Legislative Acts of the Russian Federation (organizational effectiveness of state environmental monitoring)";
- "On Amendments to the Federal Law On the internal waters, territorial sea and contiguous zone of the Russian Federation",
- "On the continental shelf of the Russian Federation" and the Point 27 of the Federal Law "On the exclusive economic zone of the Russian Federation" (in terms of improvement the legislation in the field regulating the using of natural resources of internal maritime waters of Russian Federation in order to preserve and protect Marine environment from the oil pollution);
- "On amendments to some legislative acts of the Russian Federation (regulation of the elimination the environmental damage including related last business activities)";
- "On Amendments to the Federal Law On Environmental Protection";
- "On Amendments to the Federal Law On Environmental Impact Assessment";
- "On Environmental Audit";
- "On Environmental Insurance";
- "On Amendments to the Federal Law On Education";
- "On Amendments to the Code of Administrative Violations";
- "On Amendments to the Budget Code of the Russian Federation and to the Tax Code of the Russian Federation (Explanatory Note, 2012).
Environmental standards in building infrastructure
The standardization of environmental standards should be the basic on the construction of buildings and structures. This is fundamentally important for the whole national economic system. The movement to promote the construction of "green buildings" in Russia is just beginning. However, the established Green Building Council notes that the country has all the required conditions for its development.
Currently, a number of Russian organizations are active in the development of the domestic versions of "green" standards. This includes: Green Building Council (RuGBC), Council for Sustainable Architecture of the Union of Architects of Russia, National Association of Builders (NOSTROY), State Corporation "Olimpstroy", non-profit enterprise "Center for Environmental Certification - Green Stan-dards"(Tabunschikov, Naumov and Miller, 2012).
The system of voluntary certification of real estate objects "Green Standards" was developed and registered in Rostehregulirovanie under the auspices of the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment of the Russian Federation (The Center "Green Standards", 2012). The system provides a set of measures for energy conservation and the use of alternative energy technologies, compulsory amenities, landscaping, separate collection and recycling of waste, as well as the infrastructure components such as the accessibility of the building and others (Primak, 2010). "Green Projects" are becoming more attractive to investors because they provide reduction of investment risks by achieving high levels of energy efficiency and focus on the relevant forming market.
The number of buildings certified under the voluntary eco-standards is growing. Example are: the "Office Center" - Barvikha - Moscow Region; Rublevskoe / Podushkinskoe highway (Grand Land Company Group, the International Architectural firm Willen Associates Architekten, its distinguishing feature is the using of photovoltaic cells and solar energy); office complex "ARCUS" - Moscow (certification according
to BREEAM; participants: CLEARLINK Development; CLEARLINK Asset Management; architectural bureau "Ostozhenka"; RBTT Consultants, RAMBOLL, MARSH, CLIFFORD CHANCE); office building WWF, Moscow (the Designer is OOO "VLI East", the developer and project Manager Company "Proma Estate") and others. Of course, we should mention the practice of "Olympstroy", which implies expert examination of Olympic objects (Green Building Council, 2012).
Fulfillment of the requirements of national standards is not presently mandatory. Evaluation of "green" objects for compliance with the minimum environmental requirements will be carried out in accordance with the systems of voluntary certification. However, there is a shortage of trained professional who are able to accompany the "green projects" from the initial stage and an insufficient number of suppliers of "green technologies and materials" (Kevorkova. 2012). It is clear that State intervention is required in legislative and administrative support systems, in training of specialists and, at the same time, with a wideranging education in this field.
The objectives and prospects of eco-management systems
Implementing the basis of environmental policy in the Russian Federation up to 2030 should help to solve the problem in the field of environmental protection and environmental safety in Russia. Preserving nature for future generations should be the national priority.
Tax policy in the field of environmental protection should be revised, as well as the policy of environmental permits. Rational subsidies on ecological studies and actions should also be promoted. Focus on the best available technology is the most important element of EMS implementation. Establishing a modern system for collection and recycling of household and industrial waste is also fundamental. The territorial aspects of management are important concerns for establishing environmental management systems in Russia.
The creation of regional EMS requires:
- to place environmental management as a national priority;
- to speed up the formation of a new package of environmental laws, including the tax and licensing upgrade program to support the introduction of BAT;
- to establish priority (soft) conditions for lending to enterprises seeking to implement the Best Available Technologies;
- to include environmental criteria in assessing the funding of regional projects;
- to develop the system of Green public procurement;
- to support the voluntary certification and eco-label process in appliance with environmental standards;
- to promote "environmental businesses" (in particular this applies to the processes of separation, collection and recycling of waste, and the construction of waste treatment plants);
- to promote environmental education in the university curricula;
- to create a national system of mass-media awareness of the ecological state of the environment, measures for its protection, current trends and challenges in the field of greening industrial and household activity including coverage of the latest technologies and practices, and implementation of best practices (using media channels such as TV, radio and Internet).
The State plays a central role in promoting EMS, not only through the development of appropriate policies and implementation of environmental laws, the promotion of voluntary certification (eco-labels), but also through the real actions such as green public procurement.
The separation of garbage (plastic, paper, glass, food and hazardous waste) is an urgent measure. It is known that there are many entrepreneurs wishing to recycle the waste, it is only necessary to create the right incentives and facilities.
The energy conservation program should be focused on the use of the most advanced and environmentally friendly materials and technologies for the production and conservation of energy (ranging from household lamps to the electric power generation).
Environmental education
"Education is the key. So often this is the conclusion reached when we consider the environmental problems of our democratic society. Because it is ultimately the people who must decide on this or that option, all can agree that it is essential that people be informed so that their decisions will be correct (William, 2000)." The main objectives of environmental education should be established by the State. It is necessary
that children and young people learn to respect nature in practice through taking part in environmental activities. It must be emphasized in this context the importance of school environmental education, the role of parents and families (Jane, 2003).
Sustainable development starts with small things, with simple practical work in this direction. The main task is to learn to appreciate what we have.
Conclusion
This article addressed the main environmental management tools used in developed countries. The aim was to give a clear picture of the best practices around the world and to discuss the possibilities of its applications in Russia.
As Russia is at the beginning of a new legislative framework in the field of "national greening" this research focuses on the leading support legislative documents which programs the tasks for the Russian government. We conclude that the country needs a vast reform of its environmental policy. The reform should go in the direction of reducing the number of bureaucratic obstacles and structures, public education, and the close co-operation in the field of education with leading research institutions around the world.
Acknowledgments
This research was undertaken whilst Tatiana Smetanina stayed at the University of Algarve under a Postdoc research visit. The authors are grateful to the Erasmus Mundus program TRIPLE I and the University of Turku for the possibility to make this research, as well as to all service departments of the University of Algarve for their hospitality and support.
Funding
Erasmus Mundus Program "TRIPLE I" (European Commision), Action 2, Lot 6, 2012-2013. References
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Поступила в редакцию 18.12.13
Татьяна Сметанина, Педро Пинтассилго, Антонио Матиас ИНСТРУМЕНТЫ ЭКОЛОГИЧЕСКОГО МЕНЕДЖМЕНТА: МИРОВОЙ ОПЫТ И РОССИЙСКАЯ ПРАКТИКА
Представлены базовые элементы макроэкономического регулирования состояния окружающей среды в развитых странах, рассматриваются основные практические инструменты действующей системы экологического менеджмента - экологические налоги, разрешения, субсидии, стандарты. Дискутируются содержательные моменты понятий: «экономика окружающей среды», «экологический менеджмент» и др. Приводится статистика спектра экологического налогообложения в рамках стран ОЭСР с описанием соответствующего механизма управления и контроля. Даются примеры природоохранных программ, их содержания, законодательных и информационных ресурсов Европейского союза в области охраны окружающей среды; говорится о формировании базовых элементов экологической политики в России, ключевых основополагающих законодательных актах для регулирования деятельности экономических субъектов. Речь идет о пересмотре структуры и содержания стандартов качества окружающей среды, ревизии «разрешительной» системы, делается акцент на важность внедрения «наилучших доступных технологий» как оптимальном инструменте достижения результатов формируемой экологической политики. Подчеркивается необходимость формирования системы информационной поддержки экологической деятельности хозяйствующих субъектов в Российской Федерации с учетом мирового опыта. Задача создания структуры менеджмента природоохранной деятельности рассматривается в контексте общей реструктуризации системы управления с учетом преимуществ совместного участия государства и общественности в деле охраны окружающей среды. На первое место в решении проблемы «экологизации» российской экономики поставлена подготовка качественной долговременной законодательной базы и задача внедрения новых стандартов массового экологического образования в системе среднего и высшего профессионального обучения.
Ключевые слова: экологический менеджмент, инструменты экологического менеджмента - налоги, разрешения, субсидии, законодательство охраны окружающей среды.
T. Smetanina, Candidate of Economics (PhD), Docent (Assistant Professor),
Department of Economics, Institute of Economics and Management, Udmurt State University 426004, Izhevsk, Russia E-mail: smetanina.tatiana@gmail.com
P. Pintassilgo (advisor), PhD, Assistant Professor
Faculty of Economics and Research Centre for Spatial and Organizational Dynamics, University of Algarve
Campus de Gambelas, 8005-139 Faro, Portugal
A. Matias (advisor), PhD, Assistant Professor
Faculty of Economics and Research Centre for Spatial and Organizational Dynamics University of Algarve
Campus de Gambelas, 8005-139 Faro, Portugal
Сметанина Татьяна,
кндидат экономических наук, доцент
ФГБОУ ВПО «Удмуртский государственный университет»
426004, Россия, г. Ижевск, ул. Университетская, 1 (корп. 4) E-mail: smetanina.tatiana@gmail.com
Пинтассилго Педро, PhD, Assistant Professor
Faculty of Economics and Research Centre for Spatial and Organizational Dynamics, University of Algarve
Campus de Gambelas, 8005-139 Faro, Portugal
Матиас Антонио, PhD, Assistant Professor
Faculty of Economics and Research Centre for Spatial and Organizational Dynamics University of Algarve
Campus de Gambelas, 8005-139 Faro, Portugal
