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past, and for those of the younger generation due to the existing educational prospects and business contacts.
A neutral image of Russia among part of the population of Northern Kazakhstan is largely based on personal experience. They feel advantages of living close to the border with Russia, but do not feel threats because it is difficult to fear anyone whom one knows quite well and is in constant contact with. In Alma-Ata such logic is widespread among students, political journalists, and taxi-drivers. The number of direct contacts is much smaller, and people tend to invent a more comfortable model of perception of Russia, which is not always positive.
Author of the abstract - Valentina Schensnovich
ELENA DMITRIEVA. THE TERRITORIAL QUESTION AS AN INTERNAL FACTOR DESTABILIZING SITUATION IN CENTRAL ASIA // Review was written for the bulletin "Russia and the Moslem World."
Keywords: Central Asia, ethnic enclave, disputed territories, delimitation and demarcation of borders, conflict, territorial claims, geopolitical instability, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan.
Elena Dmitrieva,
Senior Research Associate, INION RAS
Abstract: This review is devoted to territorial problems in the Central Asian region which have a long history and after the disintegration of the U.S.S.R. have become a stumbling block for the newly-independent states of the region, because they turned into a permanent source of ethnic and territorial disputes and border conflicts.
The problem is exacerbated by the fact that until now there has been no delimitation and demarcation of the borders between the Central Asian countries.
Introduction
This review deals with ethnic and territorial problems and border-territorial conflicts between Central Asian states. The timely character of the subject is determined by the fact that the territorial problem is now the key factor in the system of regional policy.
After the disintegration of the U.S.S.R. independent states have emerged in Central Asia in place of the former Union republic of the Mother country - Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan, Unfortunately, they were unable to build up friendly, good-neighborly relations between themselves during the quarter of a century which passed since then, agree with one another on the border issues and create a uniform political, economic and cultural area. Today the process of degradation of interstate relations in this region continues, and one of the reasons for it is the pendency of the territorial question.
From the time of gaining independence by the Central Asian republics of the former U.S.S.R. ethnic and territorial conflicts between them have exacerbated and their near-to-border districts have turned into dangerous zones, because the borders established back in Soviet time, which were of a formal. Nature within the framework of a uniform state has ceased to satisfy the newly-independent states. Disputes on the problems of border delimitation and demarcation quite often lead to armed conflicts on border territories, and the circle of parties to conflicts becomes ever broader: not only people living in near-border districts are involved, but also border services, forces of the Interior, district administrative bodies, and various organizations, to say nothing of criminal elements.
By now the question of the delimitation of land borders with the neighboring countries has been settled only by Turkmenistan and Kazakhstan. The greatest number of territorial disputes leading to armed border conflicts have emerged between Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan, whose territories have a common border in the Ferghana Valley, a region with a very difficult socio-economic situation (high population density, rapid growth of the population, shortage of land and water), and also where the positions of Islamic radicals are rather strong.
History of Territorial Disputes and Ethnic Enclaves
S.K. Almanov. Enclaves in Central Asia: History and Modern Problems / / "Post-Soviet Research," Moscow, 2018, Vol. 1, № 5, P. 451-460.
The author of the article analyzes the reasons for modern territorial conflicts in close connection with the history of the emergence of ethnic enclaves in Central Asia.
He notes that the greatest number of disputed issues when determining borders emerge on the territories adjacent to ethnic enclaves. The difficulties arising in laying out the border line close to enclave territories are conditioned by a complex history of the formation of administrative borders in the process of nationalterritorial division in the early 1920s. At that period the drawing of borders between republics was based not only on the ideas of the conditional and formal character of borders within the framework of a uniform state at the time, but also on a number of other principles, which are classified and characterized by the author one by one.
1. Determination of border on nationality basis. The author writes that in Central Asia the use of this principle required taking into account the specific way of life of nomadic peoples, which comprised the overwhelming majority of the local population during one season of the year and were in a minority among the
settled people at another time of year. However, these circumstances were not always taken into account and therefore certain purely Kyrgyz districts were included in Uzbek territories, thus forming an ethnic enclave.
2. The principle of actual use of locality at the moment of border determination. In the author's view, the decisive factor at the time was settled irrigated farming, and the interests if nomadic peoples were not taken into account, which led to the incorrect distribution of territories for the habitation of some or other peoples.
3. The principle of economic expediency connected with the abolition of cotton dependence of the U.S.S.R., which relied mainly on the development of precisely that branch of agriculture to the detriment of others.
4. The principle of avoidance of sharp bends, crossings and disseminations in alien territories when drawing borders. This principle was not applied correctly in many cases, in the author's view, and led to the emergence of ethnic enclaves, which are many and varied especially in the Ferghana Valley.
Border disputes between the Central Asian republics were going on throughout the entire period of the existence of the U.S.S.R., and they were not settled by the time of its disintegration. Certain districts were included either in one or in another republic, with changing the border line, which was explained by the attempt to settle the problems of land-utilization, but which only led to further exacerbation of the conflict in the future. At present border territorial claims have acquired a strong conflict character, and the border issue has become one of the most urgent disputed aspects at the interstate level.
In tackling the delimitation and demarcation problem in the Central Asian region, according to the author of the article, emphasis should be laid on a comprehensive solution of the problem, which should include equal consultations, mutual understanding and mutual compromise. As a major component of a rational solution of the border issue the author suggests to set up
an international legal basis for a preventive search of mutually beneficial and rational use of border natural and communication resources. Civilized conditions for the vital activity of the population in the enclaves and their environs, in the author's view, can be created by the sides only through agreements on the enclave regime, taking into account the interests of each side.
Territorial Claims as an Internal Factor of Conflicts
in Central Asian Region
Z. Murataliyeva. "Analysis of Certain Factors of Influence on Political Processes in Central Asia" / / Vestnik Kyrgyz-Russian Slavic University, Bishkek, 2017, Vol. 17, № 9, P. 61-64.
The article examines external and internal factors influencing the level of conflicts between the five Central Asian states.
Among the internal factors the author singles out territorial claims of states to one another, which is connected with the natural and demographic resources of Central Asia. In his view, the presence of big ethnic communities living on the territory of neighboring states carries a threat of national conflicts on ethnic grounds. This was a consequence of the national delimitation carried out in the 1920s, which created prerequisites for territorial disputes after the disintegration of the U.S.S.R.
The author names the territory of the Ferghana Valley the epicenter of the conflict. This place is distinguished by a high tension level and a great degree of overpopulation (seven million, three-quarters of them - mainly Uzbeks - are rural dwellers). The Feghana Valley is also known for its very high population density (up to 500 - 600 and even 1,000 per square kilometer in certain places) and very acute socio-economic problems and a high degree of Islamic radicalism.
The author analyzes the reason for the growing contradictions between the neighboring states in the region, turns to the history of the problem and notes that part of Southern
Uzbekistan around Samarkand and Bokhara were inhabited by Tajiks and historically these cities belonged to Tajikistan, but in the 1920s were handed over to Uzbekistan, and hence, acute contradictions between Tajikistan and Uzbekistan. Turkmenistan also has territorial claims to Uzbekistan in Chardzhou region. In the most densely populated state of Central Asia - Uzbekistan there are forces supporting the idea of the "Great Uzbekistan" -from Southern Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Chardzhou and Tashauz in Turkmenistan up to two south-western regions of Kazakhstan. Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan cannot agree on the border line passing through the water area of the Aral Sea.
The author also points to another factor weakening regional stability - the Tajik enclave in north-eastern Afghanistan. Recently, Afghanistan has begun to present its territorial claims to Uzbekistan, Tajikistan and Turkmenistan, and this also contributes to the growing tension in the region.
Speaking of the importance of the territorial factor in interstate relations, the author cites certain results of investigations carried out by the Sociological Service of the Central Asian Agency of Political Research (APR), on whose results the problem of disputed territories took first place in the rating of the existing interstate problems of Central Asia.
In conclusion the author of the article defines the vectors of possible future conflicts between Central Asian countries, names the external factors influencing the security of the region, and gives his forecast for the nearest future. He maintains that drug trafficking, international terrorism and religious extremism are among the problems directly influencing the security of the countries of Central Asia. They are largely engendered by the close proximity to the region of the world's major source of instability, that is, Afghanistan and Pakistan. In the near future the situation in the number of Central Asian countries may become greatly aggravated in connection with the threat of the expulsion of part of the Afghan militants from the territory of Uzbekistan, Tajikistan a Kyrgyzstan.
Thus, there are quite a few external factors negatively influencing the essence and form of political processes in Central Asian countries. A major part of political processes reflects the dependence of the regional states on their historical past. For one, it is the existing geopolitical ambiguity connected with attempts to retain the multivector character of geopolitical choice. The law level of regional identity exerts a great influence on the character of political processes, inasmuch as a positive cultural-identification structure is absent in Central Asia.
Conclusion
The absence of demarcation and delimitation of borders increases the risk of the breaking-up of conflicts in Central Asia, although the changes of the already established frontiers on the ethnic principle could lead to catastrophic consequences. However, the border problem must be settled sooner or later. The conflicts on borders and in near-border stretches of Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan and Tajikistan in recent years and months make it possible to characterize the present situation as unstable and deteriorating.
The most acute border conflicts take place in the Ferghana Valley divided between three states - Tajikistan, Uzbekistan and Kyrgyzstan. Statements of the heads of state of these countries about their readiness to complete work on the legal formulation of the state border line, and even certain practical steps undertaken in this direction have been fruitless and showed the inability of the Central Asian states to tackle these matters as they should be dealt with. The persistently acute shortage of natural resources for the population of enclaves, as well as stricter rules and regulations of border crossing have been, and still are, the main factor of ethnic and territorial conflicts between citizens of these three countries. This circumstance is aggravated by the intensive population growth in enclaves. Taking into account the geographic position of the Ferghana Valley, the ethnic composition of its population, and the specific features of its land tenure and the use of its water
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resources, one of the means of solving the problem could be the introduction of a simpler procedure of border crossing for people living in near-border districts.
Central Asian countries are not striving for close cooperation with one another to create a uniform economic, political and cultural area. They adhere to the principle of multi-vector geopolitics.
The newly-independent Central Asian states have not yet shown a desire for a compromise in the legal establishment of their state borders, although this problem is a crucial one, guaranteeing the territorial integrity of states and non-interference in their domestic affairs. It is also one of the barriers to such outside threats to national security as snuggling, international criminal activity, extremist and terrorist movements, and illegal migration.
2018.04.005. DENIS MALTSEV. HISTORICAL MYTHS OF THE COUNTRIES OF MIDDLE ASIA // "Moskva," Moscow, 2016, № 7, P. 161-181.
Keywords: mythologization of history, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, pan-Turkism, folk-histories, concept of "nomadic civilization," indigenous ethnos, "colonial period," 1916 uprising.
Denis Maltsev,
PhD(History),
Russian Institute for Strategic Studies
Countries that have gained independence use history as one of the main ideological tools within the framework of national and state construction throughout the Modern and Recent history. After the First World War, Turkey acts as an example close to Central Asia with its official historiography of Turanism (Pan-Turkism) and later the Turkish nationalism of Ataturk. In the second half of the 20th century, historical myths arose massively in
