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20Educational leadership styles among principals of public schools in Irbid and their relationship to teachers'
performance
Sumaya Fahmi Al-zou'bi School Headmaster, Ministry of Education, Jordan
Abstract: This study investigated the level of utilizing educational leadership styles by principals of public schools in Irbid governorate and its relationship to the level of teachers' performance towards work from the teachers' perspectives. The correlational descriptive approach was used in this study, as it is a suitable approach for this study. The study used the random stratified sampling method to select the participants of this study. The total number of participants was 420 female and male teachers from public schools in Irbid City. The study designed a questionnaire as an instrument for data collection, which was sent online (using Google Forms) to the sample of the study. The questionnaire included 19 statements covering the three leadership styles (autocratic, democratic, and laissez-faire). The findings revealed that the level of practising leadership styles by principals of public schools in Irbid governorate from the teachers' point of view was "high" on the quantitative score. The democratic leadership style was the highest in use according to the teachers. The findings revealed the absence of statistically significant differences in the use of leadership style according to the gender variable. The findings also revealed the absence of statistically significant differences in the use of leadership style according to the academic education variable.
Keywords: leadership styles, democratic style, autocratic style, laissez-faire style, school principals
1. Introduction
Humans live in groups and affect each other when practising social life. People are affected by several variables such as social influences. Groups and societies have leaders and managers who direct members of their groups according to specific directions. Any individual behavior has a specific impact on the behaviors of small groups or large groups (Abu Nasra & Arar 2020). Therefore, any leadership style used by leaders and managers has great importance on the performance and motivations of the members of any group. Many of the individuals had practised, during a period of their lives, two types of educational leadership. The school principal, education supervisor, teacher, and parents all held leadership roles, and it was difficult for the
desired change or reflection to occur when effective educational leadership was not implemented (Stewart-Banks et al., 2015).
Leadership is a sophisticated work that needs to be practised within the school. Self-administration has multiple levels and is a mixture of insistence on the continuity of the system and the institution and the achievement of goals (Al-Zoubi et al., 2023). Despite these views on the nature of educational leadership, some studies confirmed the fact of the positive relationship between the nature and quality of leadership and the effectiveness of the institution in achieving its goals (Sfakianaki et al., 2018). Leadership is characterized by continuous effectiveness and expresses the relationship of one person to another, which is the relationship between the leader and the subordinate. In this process, the leader can influence through the best practices of leadership the levels of, motivation and performance among individuals (Abbas et al., 2022).
Modern studies in the field of educational management began to gradually shift since the nineties of the last century from its focus on the school principal and his/her qualities, components, characteristics, values, and management patterns to the study of school management itself and determining the requirements for its success (Al-Khasawneh & Moh'd Futa, 2013). The so-called re-invention of the political, economic, and social systems and the radical transition from the centralized system in education to the decentralized "democratic" system, all of them are in light of a centralized system of education, rather highly centralized in most Arab countries (Astuti et al., 2020).
1.1. Problem Statement
School Principals have a vital role in the educational process. The principal of the school has specific capacities as an educational leader and must possess leadership skills, represented in the ability to supervise the implementation of the school plan to achieve the desired goals. Without sound leadership, there can be no effective change or real reform in these schools, as the principal needs to be able to deal with many categories of individuals, as well as deal with different societies and cultures (Saleem et al., 2020). Finally, to achieve the goals that the school aspires to reach. However, in most of these schools, the principal does not fully trust his/her role and duties. Contemporary education focuses on raising teachers' motivation and performance and its role in refining students' talents and their academic and educational abilities and creating an effective and active educational environment in the school (Rana et al., 2016). Therefore, it is necessary to identify the level of practising educational leadership styles by school principals in Irbid City, Jordan, and their relationship to raising the teachers' performance inside the classroom and the school environment. Therefore, the problem of the current study is represented in answering the following question: What is the degree of practising educational leadership styles by principals
of public schools in Irbid City and its relationship to the level of teachers' performance at work?
1.2. Objectives and questions of the study
This study aimed at investigating the relationship between the level of practicing educational leadership styles by principals of public schools in Irbid governorate and its relationship to the level of teachers' performance towards work from their point of view. The study attempted to answer the following questions:
1- What is the level of practising educational leadership styles by principals of public schools in Irbid Governorate from the point of view of teachers?
2- Are there any statistically significant differences in the degree of practising leadership styles among the principals of public schools in Irbid City due to the variables of gender, educational qualification, and years of experience?
1.3.Significance of the study
The results of this investigation might help the principals of public schools in Irbid governorate by identifying the degree of practice of educational leadership styles and their relationship to the level of performance at work for teachers. The study adds to the theoretical background on educational leadership styles and their role in education. The results will benefit educational leaders in following the suitable leadership style they use with their teachers.
1.4. Limitations
The results of this study were limited to the data obtained from its instrument and the sincerity of responses from the participants. The study only covered public schools in Irbid City in the academic school year 2021-2022. The teachers' participation was optional and all members of the community of the study participated in the online survey.
2. Literature Review
2.1. Leadership Concepts
Leadership has been defined as a collection of behavioural patterns or certain behaviours that occur in a person, and its vision is intended to urge the workers to cooperate to achieve the specific goals of the work (Amanchukwu et al., 2015). Leadership has also been defined as a creative activity, where successful leaders do not stop at encouraging initiative and creativity for the people who make up their organizations (Al-Zoubi et al., 2023). It is also a type of relationship characterized by strength and chemistry among the members of the group, where one of the individuals of the group formulates two models of his behavior and the group accepts such behaviour as a major activity.
There are many definitions of leadership among those interested in the administrative aspect, depending on the quality of the study and the environment of the institution. As there are many concepts, it can be said that leadership is a state of mutual
influence between the leaders and their subordinates to reach common goals (Bafadal et al., 2019). The leadership process consists of four stages. First, the distribution of tasks includes planning, directing, and instructions. Second, the implementation, including guidance, control, delegation, and reporting on the performance of subordinates. Third evaluation, including control and technical work. Fourth, motivation, including rewarding workers, information, and feedback on the performance of subordinates for the set goals (Burns & Martin, 2010).
The literature has several leadership theories that cover leadership styles and explain leadership. First. the Great Man Theory. This theory is considered one of the first theories that talked about leadership (Cansoy, 2019). It assumes that the individual leader possesses extraordinary talents and abilities and leads through personal strength and strong will. This theory works to build a system that depends on the individual to encourage the group to be passive because what is required of it is response, submission, and obedience. The success of this theory in this case depends on the evidence of the leader's sincerity to the group and his ability to prefer its interests over his interests, such as his self-denial and his ability over the people (Clarke & O'donoghue, 2017).
The second is the characteristics theory. It focuses on the physical, mental, emotional, and social characteristics and traits that an individual enjoys within his community, which make him a leader and rule over others (Nordin et al., 2020). This theory believes that being a good leader depends on having specific qualities. These qualities make the leader different from others, and it is these qualities that make them effective in their role (Genfer & Samur 2016). The person believing in such a theory thinks of a leader as being taller than others, larger in size, fitter in body, better looking, and smarter than others, as well as being characterized by greater self-confidence and more involvement in social activity (Bush, 2020).
Third, behavioural theory. As a result of the lack of agreement on the traits and the abundance of evidence that there are acquired traits in leadership, the question began about the behavioural characteristics of the leaders (Liu et al., 2021). Therefore, several research studies focused their attention on getting to know the traits of the leader and the group. These studies revealed three concerns, focusing on the behavior of the leader and how it is affected and influenced by the group of workers, focusing on the subordinates and their behavior, and focusing on the task.
2.2. Leadership styles
There are several major leadership styles. First, Autocratic (authoritarian) leadership is where the leader practices the assertion of tyranny without ideology and bigotry and the leader takes decisions on his/her own using methods of imposition, coercion, and intimidation to implement his orders. In this style of leadership, there is no discussion or sufficiency (Haj & Jubran, 2016). The leader just directs others to do
and orders them what to do and when to do, so that the leader is isolated from followers, and has a human relationship with them. In this style, the school principal sets a specific image for the school from the plans and policies that achieve the official image drawn for the school (Kalkan et al., 2020). This type of leader shows a good face to those who agree with him and anger and punishment to those who disagree with him. He often gathers the teachers according to his desire to guide them in making decisions and instructions without participating in efficiency in the school, as well as the administration and oversight, such as the continuous inspection of teachers (Khan et al., 2020).
Second, the Democratic Leadership. This leadership philosophy believes in involving people and giving them power to make decisions (Kalkan et al., 2020) The Democratic leader talks to the people in their group and helps make decisions. They also give more power to their team members and work together. Policies are made by all the members of the organization when they agree and discuss together (Kaso et al., 2019). The democratic leader plays a role in the early stages of what the group agrees on, from opinions and ideas to decisions and policies. In the end, the decision comes from the thinking and initiative of the group. If the organization's members are aware of the decision, they will hold on to it and will help to implement it. The democrat leader relies on the acceptance of his authority by the followers and not on the authority entrusted to him. He/she also has to participate in discussing the problems that are encountered in making decisions related to my work.
Third, laissez-faire leadership, which was called by several names, including absolute leadership, formal, free, or arbitrary, and the ability of collaborative leadership to adopt the style of freedom through the leader's waiver of his role in the power of decision-making. The role of the leader becomes under the authority of the advisor, as absolute freedom is given to each individual in the performance of his duties, and in organizing the course of his work without interference (Karadag et al., 2015). The leader loses the real role entrusted to him in directing the personnel in organizing activities and performing duties. It is a leadership that is free from the authority of the leader, and it may be questioning, but it can leave the individual to do whatever he wants as it appears as if he does not exist. The leader leaves full responsibilities to his followers and relies on total trust in the investigation, and the usually lenient leader communicates information to the members of his group so that he leaves absolute freedom to act without interfering with it (Khasawneh, 2021).
2.3. Previous studies
Astut et al. (2020) explored how the principal's leadership style and motivation to work affect how well high school teachers perform. The information for this study was gathered by giving out questionnaires to the people participating. There were 85 high school teachers in the research sample. The findings of the study indicate that: 1) The
way leaders lead has a strong and positive impact on how well teachers perform; 2) When teachers are motivated to work, it also has a positive and significant effect on their performance; 3) Both the leadership style and the motivation to work have a significant influence, at the same time, on the performance of teachers.
Saleem et al. (2020) investigated how the way principals lead private high schools affects how well teachers do their jobs. The present research selected four types of leadership styles explained in the path-goal theory and five important measures of teacher job performance. A total of 253 supervisors and managers were part of this study. The results of the study showed that the way leaders behave has a strong impact on how well teachers perform in schools. The most effective leadership style was being clear and telling teachers what to do, followed by providing support and encouraging achievement. On the other hand, even though participative leadership was seen as important, it wasn't seen as a good indicator of how well teachers perform in their jobs.
Kaso et al. (2019) explored how a principal's leadership affects how well teachers perform, how a principal's leadership influences students' character considering their local culture, and how a teacher's performance affects students' character considering their local culture. The study used different approaches such as management, education, society, and psychology. The tools used to gather data were surveys, watching and recording information, talking to people, and studying documents. The results of analyzing the data show that how the principal leads affects how well teachers perform and how students behave, based on the culture of the local area. How a teacher acts can also impact how a student behaves.
AlOqlah (2022) investigated how conflict management affects job performance for principals in public schools in Irbid province, from their perspective. The research included (220) leaders of public schools in Irbid. Of these, (145) were male and the remaining (75) were female. They were chosen randomly. The final number of people who responded was 200. To reach their goals and gather information, the researchers created two tools. The first tool has 17 statements to assess conflicts, while the second tool has 13 statements to measure the job performance of school principals. After analyzing the data, the study discovered that conflict management for principals in Irbid's public schools was high. This was based on the overall mean of 3. 71 and a deviation of 0. 241 According to principals from Irbid's public schools, they believed their job performance level was high. The overall mean score for the dimension was 3. 76, with a mean of 0. 690.
Al-Zoubi et al (2023) explored how much public high school principals in the capital city of Jordan, Amman, use lean management. A group of 342 teachers took a test called the lean management scale and another test called the teacher job performance scale. The study found that there was a high level of lean management. There were no important differences in the level of lean management based on gender,
years of experience, or level of education. The study found that teachers performed well overall, and there were no noticeable differences in teacher performance based on gender or academic qualifications. Teachers with more than ten years of experience did better. In simple words: The study found that the leaner management practices were used, the better the teachers performed in their jobs.
3. Methodology
The researcher used the correlational descriptive approach in this study, as it is the most suitable approach for the current study.
3.1. Sampling
The study used the random stratified sampling method to select the participants of this study. The total number of participants was 420 female and male teachers from public schools in Irbid City as shown in the following table.
Table 1.
Demographic information of the sample
Variable Level Number Total
Gender Male 175
Female 245
Specialization Scientific 223
Humanities 179 420
1-5 years 175
Years of experience 5-10 years 125
More than 10 120
3.2. Instrument of the study
The study used a questionnaire as an instrument for data collection. The questionnaire was designed and sent online (using Google Forms) to the sample of the study. The questionnaire included 19 statements covering the three leadership styles (autocratic, democratic, and laissez-faire).
To make sure of the validity of the questionnaire, apparent honesty was used. The instrument was presented to a group of judges with the same specialization and experience in educational administration in Jordanian universities, to judge the meaning of measuring the questionnaires for the objectives for which they were applied, as well as the indications of the validity of the paragraphs, which need to be modified. Based on the judge's feedback, some paragraphs were proposed to be amended, drafted, or deleted.
The reliability of the study instrument was confirmed in two ways, the first using the test-retest method to find the (Cronbach's alpha) coefficient, and the second using Cronbach's alpha equation (test-retest) for internal consistency on all dimensions and the tool as a whole. The total Pearson correlation for the questionnaire was 0.83.
3.3. Data analysis
To answer the questions of the study, mean scores, standard deviations, ranks, and degrees were used. The t-test was used for the variables of gender and academic
qualification. As for the variable of years of experience, a one-way analysis of variance test was performed. 4. Results
The following section presents the results of the study as obtained from answering the study instrument.
4.1. Results of the first question
The mean scores and standard deviations were obtained for the three dimensions of the study. The following table presents the results for all the dimensions as a whole.
Table 2.
Mean scores and standard deviations of the level of practising leadership styles from
the teachers' point of view
№ Dimension Mean score Standard deviation Rank Level
1 Democratic style 3.93 0.53 1 High
2 Autocratic style 3.76 0.56 2 High
3 laissez faire 3.69 0.60 3 High
Table 2 shows that the mean score of the responses of the sample to the degree of practice of leadership styles by principals ranged between 3.69 and 3.93 (and with a high degree of practice for all domains). The teachers' ordered the used style from the democratic as the highest and laziness-faire as the lowest.
The questionnaire included 6 statements about the democratic leadership style. The following table presents the statistical data related to this dimension.
Table 3.
Mean scores and standard deviations of the democratic leadership style
№ Statement Mean score Standard deviation Rank Level of practice
2 The principal involves teachers in the preparation of instructions. 4.11 0.77 1 High
6 The principal delegates part of his/her powers to teachers to ensure the achievement of the desired goals. 4.10 0.88 2 High
3 The principal takes into account the capabilities of teachers when distributing responsibilities. 3.95 0.78 3 High
5 The principal encourages teachers' and students' creativity in the school. 3.94 0.89 4 High
4 The principal encourages the search for diverse ideas and visions to solve problems. 3.83 0.99 5 High
1 The principal spreads the spirit of cooperation between teachers in the school. 3.66 0.95 6 High
Total 3.93 0.53 High
Table 3 shows the mean scores, standard deviations, and rank for each statement for the democratic style domain. It is noted that the mean scores for this domain ranged between (3.66 to 4.11) with a high degree of practice for all statements except statement (1), with a moderate degree of practice.
Table 4 presents the mean scores and standard deviations for the statements related to the autocratic leadership style from the teachers' point of view.
Table 4.
The mean scores and standard deviations for the autocratic leadership style
№ Statement Mean score Standard deviation Rank Level of practice
8 The principal adheres to following the administrative regulations. 3.9 0.92 1 High
12 The principal underestimates suggestions made by teachers. 3.77 0.83 2 High
9 The principal cares about work more than he/she cares about the teachers. 3.69 0.88 3 High
11 The principal gets angry about the absence of teachers. 3.68 1.07 4 High
7 The principal is characterized by centrality. 3.58 1.03 5 Medium
10 The principal derives his/her powers from the administrative position. 3.42 1.26 6 Medium
Total 3.76 0.56 High
Table 4 shows the mean scores, standard deviations, and rank for each statement related to the autocratic style. The mean scores ranged from (3.42-3.98) with a high level of practice. The whole domain had a mean score of (3.76), with a standard score of (0.56), and a high degree of practice.
For the last type of leadership style, the laissez-faire style, the mean scores the standard deviation were calculated for each statement related to this dimension as shown in the following table.
Table 5.
The mean scores and standard deviations for the laissez-faire leadership style
№ Statement Mean score Standard deviation Rank Level of practice
13 The principal delegates all his/her powers to the teachers. 4.04 0.92 1 High
19 The principal depends on educational supervisors when evaluating teachers. 3.93 0.97 2 High
14 The principal prefers the old traditional methods of managing tasks. 3.90 0.83 3 High
15 The principal identifies a mission and allows teachers to execute it without interference. 3.73 0.86 4 High
18 The principal gives teachers the freedom to make decisions as they see fit. 3.64 0.87 5 Medium
16 The principal allows teachers the freedom to solve school problems without interference. 3.63 0.80 6 Medium
17 The principal is characterized by friendliness and easiness in dealing with others. 3.49 1.08 7 Medium
Total 3.69 0.60 High
Table 5 shows the mean scores, standard deviations, and rank for each statement related to the laissez-faire style. The mean scores ranged from (3.49-4.04) with a high
level of practice. The whole domain had a mean score of (3.69), with a standard score of (0.60), and a high degree of practice.
4.2. Results of the second question
The results of the second are presented according to the variables of gender, academic qualification, and years of experience. The mean scores and standard deviations of the degree of school principals' practice of leadership styles were calculated from the teachers' point of view according to the independent samples. Table (6) shows the results of the (t-test) for the gender variable and the application of that test.
Table 6.
The mean scores, standard deviations, and the t-test results for the degree of practising leadership styles according to the gender variable
№ Dimensions Level of Number of Mean Standard t value Sig.
variable respondents score deviation
1 Democratic style Males 175 3.95 0.46 0.65 0.52
Females 245 3.92 0.57
2 Autocratic style Males 175 3.72 0.51 0.87 0.39
Females 245 3.67 0.66
3 laissez-faire Males 175 3.79 0.47 0.86 0.39
Females 245 3.74 0.61
Total Males 175 3.82 0.38 0.98 0.33
Females 245 3.77 0.51
Statistically significant at (a<0.05)
Table 6 shows the absence of statistically significant differences in the practice of the principals of leadership styles according to the gender variable. The t value was 0.98 and the level of significance was (0.33), which is not statistically significant.
The mean scores, standard deviations, and the t-test results were calculated for the degree of principals' practice of leadership styles from the teachers' point of view according to the specialization variable, as shown in the following table.
Table 7.
The mean scores, standard deviations, and the t-test results for the degree of practising leadership styles according to the specialization variable
№ Dimensions Level of Number of Mean Standard t value Sig.
variable respondents score deviation
1 Democratic style Scientific 223 3.96 0.58 1.06 0.28
Humanities 197 3.90 0.46
2 Autocratic style Scientific 223 3.71 0.65 0.83 0.41
Humanities 197 3.66 0.54
3 laissez-faire Scientific 223 3.78 0.61 0.78
Humanities 197 3.74 0.49
Total Scientific 223 3.82 0.52 1.08 0.28
Humanities 197 3.77 0.39
Statistically significant at (a<0.05)
Table 7 shows statistically significant differences in the levels of principals' practice of leadership styles from the teachers' point of view according to the variable of specialization. The t value was 1.08, and as a standard of significance (0.28), it is not statistically significant.
The mean scores, standard deviations, and the t-test results were calculated for the level of principals' practice of leadership styles from the teachers' point of view according to the variable of the number of years of experience as shown in the following table.
Table 8.
The mean scores and standard deviations for the degree of practising leadership styles
according to the years of experience variable
Dimension Years of experience Number Mean score Standard deviation
Democratic style 1-5 years 175 3.84 0.55
5-10 years 125 3.88 0.52
More than 10 years 120 3.89 0.49
Total 420 3.87 0.53
Autocratic style 1-5 years 175 3.73 0.58
5-10 years 125 3.73 0.61
More than 10 years 120 3.57 0.61
Total 420 3.69 0.60
laissez-faire 1-5 years 175 3.72 0.58
5-10 years 125 3.79 0.59
More than 10 years 120 3.81 0.49
Total 420 3.76 0.56
The instrument as a whole 1-5 years 175 3.76 0.46
5-10 years 125 3.78 0.50
More than 10 years 120 3.79 0.42
Total 420 3.79 0.46
It is noted from Table (8) that there is an apparent difference between the mean scores in the degree of the practice of leadership styles by principals from the teachers' point of view according to the variable number of years of experience. Principals with more than 10 years of experience ranked first, followed by principals with experience from 5-10 years, and lastly principals with experience from 1-5 years.
5. Discussion
The findings revealed that the level of practising leadership styles by principals of public schools in Irbid governorate from the teachers' point of view was "high" on the quantitative score. The questionnaire domains were all at a high level, and in the highest rank came the domain of the democratic leadership style with a mean score of (3.93) and a standard score of (0.53). The principals of schools in the field of the democratic-pattern style teach them to establish good relations with teachers, as the principals are keen to hear the proposals of their teachers that facilitate the educational process in schools, which increases job performance. It helps communication and continuity of work effectively, which made this leadership style take the highest rank
among the other styles. The democratic leadership style obtained the highest rank because of the importance of this field to identify the degree of the practice of the principals of the leadership styles from the teachers' point of view. The school principals work on applying the rules of the democratic style at the individual and collective levels and participating in decision-making. The school principals use the democratic pattern in checking the performance of the teachers in the school for their fulfilment of the duties assigned to them.
The fact that the field of the autocratic style achieved the second rank is because the principals of schools work based on centralization in making decisions related to the management of school matters. They follow the method of authoritarianism as a means to the decisions made by the school administration in the making of administrative decisions, such as making weekly plans and strategic plans with the participation of all parties involved in the educational process. Some school principals minimize the spirit of working in the name of one group and minimize the proposals presented by teachers, which made this field take the second rank at a high level.
The findings showed that the laissez-faire leadership style ranked in third place. The principals of the public schools prefer to clarify the objectives of the workers in the schools and publish all the information related to the matters of the schools' issues. This style allows absolute freedom for the teachers to interfere in school matters. Principals who use this leadership style follow up on the affairs of teachers by examining the tasks entrusted to them and how they are accomplished and encouraging the giving of seminars, conferences, and lectures that convey the school's vision, goals, and mission.
The findings revealed the absence of statistically significant differences in the use of leadership style according to the gender variable. The researcher attributes this result to the similarity of the answers because the sample came from similar backgrounds. Both genders have similar training and receive similar instructions from the Ministry of Education, which affect their use of leadership styles. Female principals share in conducting the education process, creating an educational environment, and participating in new ideas. They also take part in building knowledge in society and developing the ability to use information technology in teaching and learning.
The findings revealed the absence of statistically significant differences in the use of leadership style according to the academic education variable. The school principals have similarities in the motivation of teachers towards work to improve the teaching process in public schools in Irbid, so the answers of the study sample were not affected by the level of education of the principal. Teachers and principals interact with each other in one educational environment regardless of specializations, and they are similar to the environmental conditions that surround school principals, through which they enable them to perform work. The findings showed no difference in the responses of
the sample due to the number of years of experience. The principals showed their ability to motivate teachers to achieve school goals, as well as being able to accomplish tasks quickly and efficiently and to teach them to achieve goals and ability to be creative and innovative and motivate students.
6. Conclusion
This study aimed at investigating the relationship between the level of practicing educational leadership styles by principals of public schools in Irbid governorate and its relationship to the level of teachers' performance towards work from their point of view. The findings revealed that the level of practising leadership styles by principals of public schools in Irbid governorate from the teachers' point of view was "high" on the quantitative score. The findings revealed the absence of statistically significant differences in the use of leadership style according to the gender variable. The findings also revealed the absence of statistically significant differences in the use of leadership style according to the academic education variable. The role of using suitable leadership style in promoting teachers' performance is a very important factor. Each leadership style has its positive and negative impacts. The democratic leadership style seems to be the most effective according to the perspectives of teachers. The democratic school principal becomes more successful in achieving the higher objectives of the school when he/she uses this leadership style in an optimal way.
7. Recommendation
The study recommends providing training to public school principals on the optimal use of leadership styles. School principals must utilize a suitable leadership style that promotes the educational process in their schools. The study recommends conducting further studies on different variables and with different samples. It is also recommended to provide training for school principals on the optimal use of leadership styles.
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