CC BY
25EDUCATION, CULTURE, LANGUAGE AND HISTORY OF THE GREAT
SILK ROAD COUNTRIES
Fazilat Yuldoshova Farangiz Khudoyorova
Samarkand State Institute of Foreign Languages
ABSTRACT
The article analyzes the history of the great silk road, its importance in the social, trade and economic spheres, its role in the development of science in Central Asia. Scientific conclusions about the influence of Chinese, Indian and Greek civilizations on the scientific and philosophical views of Central Asian thinkers, the significance of this historical path in the relations of cooperation between peoples are presented. The article proposes and scientifically substantiates the organization of international clusters of education and science in the countries located on the great Silk road.
Keywords: West and East, the Great Silk Road, Ferdinand von Richthofen, Khotan, Buddhism, China, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan.
Introduction
Currently, humanity lives in an age of technological progress and integration, but problems of an interstate and interethnic nature still persist. The reasons for interethnic tension, or, conversely, the practice of good neighborly relations, lie in the historical past. At present, the efforts of most scientists are mainly aimed at studying interethnic conflicts, while the experience of peaceful coexistence of peoples (this richest socio-cultural resource) has not been sufficiently studied [1-5]. This circumstance indicates the need to revert to the study of the Great Silk Road, as a historical phenomenon that connected the peoples of the West and the East through the system of trade routes of antiquity and the Middle Ages.
The Silk Road is a broad term used to refer to major trade routes in Central Asia. Their geographical position has changed more than once. In 1877, when the geographer Ferdinand von Richthofen coined the term "Silk Road", he was referring primarily to the trade route from Rome to China. (2007) [1]
Today we use this term to designate all the directions of Eurasia along which China's trade with the West was going [6-12]. The Great Silk Road is a system of trade routes along which caravans have connected the countries of Europe and Asia since the 2nd century BC. until the 15th century A.D. The term "Great Silk Road" itself appeared only in the 19th century thanks to the fundamental monograph "China" by the German historian K. Richthofen. References and methodology
The Great Silk Road, its history and development are being studied by scientists from all over the world. The study reveals the importance of this road, which is of great importance in the history of human civilization, in the trade, economic, socio-political, military spheres, its role in the formation of friendly relations between peoples [13-19]. These factors stem from the direct purpose of the Great Silk Road. In this regard, foreign scientists: Hansen Valerie, Cope Robert, A.A. Jerusalem, Harris Jonathan, Fry Richard Nelson, A.D. Mikhailov; Special recognition of the scientific research of domestic scientists: E.V. Rtveladze, R. Mirzaeva, A. Khodzhaeva, A.O. Hasanov, R. Kenzhaeva, F. Butaeva. (1999) [2]
Research results
From the moment of the first mention in the sources (and it is known that the path existed before that), that is, about 1200 years BC, there was a trade in jade from the oases of Khotan (Eastern Xinjiang) to the burial places of the rulers of the Shang dynasty in Anyang (Henan province). During the reign of the Han dynasty (206 BC -220 AD), as well as during the 3rd - 4th centuries, the most important trade route was the route from China to India. It was during this period that Buddhism first came to China.
After the 5th century, a period of major political changes, the Silk Road began to connect China with the Iranian peoples, especially with the inhabitants of Samarkand, the center of Sogdiana. During the early Tang Dynasty (618-907), or before 755, the Chinese army deployed battalions in what is now Xinjiang, and soldiers bought various goods, also participating in the enrichment of the region. During this period, the path passed between the city of Chang'an, the capital of the Tang possessions, and Samarkand. Its northern part from the north bypassed Taklamakan, and the southern part went along the southern deserts. (2020) [3]
Another path went through the meadows several hundred kilometers to the north and connected the capital of the Mongol Empire Karakorum with the western directions, with the Black and Caspian Seas through the territory of Siberia [20-25]. This part of the path was used in the years 1200-1300. The Maritime Silk Road, connecting China with Southeast Asia, India and Islamic states, was used from 400 to 1500, when the main sea routes moved to Europe.When we wonder where we got our knowledge of the Silk Road from, it makes sense to look at the period between 200 and 1400 when the road was most actively used. Sources can be divided into three groups: surviving text sources, documents obtained from excavations, and archaeological artifacts.
All the states of Central Asia and neighboring states kept records of the Silk Road, the most famous of which are Chinese. For the reconstruction of the history of the
oasis-states of this region, records of the history of Chinese dynasties, for example, are very important. There are also testimonies in Greek, Latin, Arabic and Persian.
Many documents have been excavated in Central Asia since 1890, when Bauer's Sanskrit manuscript was discovered. New documents are still arriving today (for example, many documents written in Khotanese and describing the life of Khotan, an oasis east of Kashgar in Xinjiang). These are the languages of the Central Asian Language Union, many of which are dead and known only to a small group of scholars. Interestingly, most of the excavated documents are recycled material. The people who lived in the Silk Road area did not destroy, but collected and reused the paper. Often used paper was used to make soles for paper shoes, papier-mache figurines and other objects that were placed in graves to accompany the dead in their afterlife.
When archaeologists steam-treated these artifacts, layers of paper peeled off, revealing hidden inscriptions. With incredible surprise, scientists opened records of everyday life: the prices of fabrics, property disputes, medical recommendations and the value of a slave woman on a particular market day a thousand years ago. In addition, the dry climate of the Taklamakan desert contributes to the preservation of various archaeological artifacts [26-30]. This significantly increases our knowledge about human life: about what people who lived at that time ate, what fabrics they weaved and how they built their houses.
The main trade along the Silk Road took place as an unorganized exchange of locally produced goods. One surviving trade list from Turpan AD 743 lists vegetables, animals, and textiles as commodities. (1972) [4]
One of the merchandise coming from afar were high-quality brass-trimmed sabers sold alongside cheaper locally made stocks.
Silk was not the most important commodity. Paper, invented in China in the 2nd century BC, was much more prized in Europe and Islamic countries, while metal, spices and glass were goods in the same category as silk. One of the most common products was ammonium chloride, which was used for various purposes: to soften leather, to cool metal, and also to dye fabrics. Ammonium chloride came in large quantities from the territories of present-day Uzbekistan.
A key role in trade along the Silk Road was played by the Tang rulers, who sent thousands of rolls of silk along the way as payment for the services of their military. Silk was easier to transport to the northwest than coins because of its light weight. In addition, the government itself often experienced a shortage of coins. When soldiers received their salaries, they spent money in the markets, thereby also contributing to the region's economy. It was government spending, not private trade, that was the main economic resource of the Silk Road. In reality, private trade was irregular and relatively small, which is not the case for these large government supplies.
Many traveled along the path for pilgrimage purposes. So, missionaries from China went to study Buddhism, missionaries from countries where Zoroastrianism was practiced, the main center of which was Iran, went to study Manichaeism, and Eastern Christian pilgrims left Syria both to the West and to Chang'an. Until 1000 AD, in the territories through which the Silk Road passed, there were several types of religions, among which Buddhism was the most widespread, but also many travelers professed Zoroastrianism, Manichaeism and Eastern Christianity, the center of which was in Syria. Local rulers often professed Buddhism, but did not limit their subjects in their religion. There are even known cases when Buddhist rulers paid donations for the maintenance of temples and sacrifices within the framework of other religions.
With the advent of Islam, the situation changes dramatically. In Khotan, Islam became the dominant religion around 1006, and from that time the looting of Buddhist monasteries and temples by troops began. It was only a few centuries later that the Xinjiang region became Islamic, but ultimately Central Asia as a whole becomes an Islamic region between 1000 and 1500. Almost all local rulers converted to Islam, and their subjects were also obliged to do so.
A large number of documents produced in various areas of the Silk Road contained records of laws, legal issues and legal proceedings. In the multilingual region of the Silk Road, it was sometimes impossible to agree due to the difference in languages, but residents adopted a policy of regulating legal issues emanating from the authorities. The population needed help on the most insignificant issues, such as the theft of livestock, violation of this promise, and they resorted to legislative documents, looking for solutions to their problems.
One can find constant recourse to the law in war-torn Nie in the 3rd-4th centuries, when many families were forced to give up their children for adoption. If they paid money (the so-called "milk money") to the host family, the child should henceforth be treated like a member of the family. If they could not pay this so-called milk fee, then the child was effectively equated with a slave in the new family. And in this regard, very often the parents of adopted children turned to the local ruler with a request to make sure that their child was being treated properly. These documents are written in a language close to Sanskrit and reflect the legal tradition that took place in India.
When the Tang Dynasty armies conquered Turpan in 640, the local legal code underwent significant changes. It is known from the excavated documents that the inhabitants of Turfan believed that the afterlife judgment takes place in an exact analogy with the earthly one. For example, one low-ranking official was buried along with fourteen debt contracts, according to which the debtors did not pay him money (because, if these debts were returned to him, he had to tear these papers). People offered prayers to their afterlife judges with requests to take care of a fair trial of a newly deceased relative or to make sure that the trial was fair.
Of the documents written in the Sogdian language, the most significant language of the Silk Road, only about a hundred documents have survived. The largest collection of documents found at Kalai-mug, on the territory of modern Tajikistan, includes a detailed marriage contract, which suggested that a young couple - not only a man, but also, oddly enough, a woman - could file for divorce with subsequent division property.
Such a respectful attitude to the law of the inhabitants of the regions where the Silk Road passed helped the representatives of different cultures, religions and languages to regulate their common life and cohabitation.
The Silk Road has been around for thousands of years, passing through empires, kingdoms, governments and communities throughout history. During its long history of the existence of the Silk Road, at some times traders moved freely along these routes, and at others, their travels were dangerous and with obstacles. Thanks to the Silk Road, the countries on its territory were enriched, transferring from one culture, religion, languages, and, undoubtedly, material wealth throughout Europe, Asia and Africa, which connected these parts of the world with one common thread of cultural heritage and multifaceted identity.
Today, there are more than 40 countries on the territory of the land and sea routes of the Silk Road, which still testify to the influence of this historical phenomenon on their culture, traditions and customs. The Silk Roads Online Platform presents the various Silk Roads topics in each of these countries, which can be explored here. Select the name of a particular country from the list below, or click on the balloon on the map above.
The concept of a new Silk Road, proposed in 2013 by Chinese President Xi Jinping and launched in 2015, involves investing in roads, railways and ports, which should recreate the old Silk Road, significantly enriching neighboring regions. The proposed trade corridors are supposed to connect the territories of Xinjiang, Pakistan, Afghanistan and some other "-stations" with Europe, although the exact plan of the completely recreated route has not yet been published. The project is officially called the Silk Road Economic Belt and the 21st Century Maritime Silk Road. 2018 [5] One of the main ideas of this initiative is to connect the five post-Soviet countries -Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan - until the Chinese Foreign Ministry rejected the project. The ministry itself said that the new Silk Road should be accessible to any state willing to accept China's investment in its infrastructure. In particular, Hungary was the first European country to sign an agreement with China on June 7, 2015. Poland was also invited to cooperate, which resulted in the construction of a railway linking Warsaw with the city of Chengdu in the Sichuan province.
What we know for sure today is that any country participating in this massive initiative to transform the infrastructure of the region will receive unprecedented investment from China and, most likely, real economic benefits. Official Chinese reports highlight the positive significance of the Silk Road: the history of the Silk Road is believed to have been peaceful and free from war, conquest and imperialism. China also speaks of this initiative as "happy", "peaceful" and, moreover, quite consistent with the principle of win-win (double win).
But there are also reasons for skepticism. When China invests (currently estimated at $ 40 billion in Pakistan alone), chances are that there is more to it than just a "happy" or "peaceful" scenario.
Conclusion
The Great Silk Road has never been a single highway. Its system included several branches of caravan roads that passed through different passes in mountain ranges, bypassing deserts.
The Silk Road is a "silk thread" from the past. For us, it is a measure of the fact that humanity lived, developed in those distant years, it is a sign that we have to go through in our further development not one, but several such glorious historical periods of time. The restoration of the Great Silk Road will not only revive the economy in the Asian region, but also increase trade and financial flows to the countries of Central and Southeast Asia, the Far East and Europe. Global projects like the restoration of the Great Silk Road will lead to a redistribution of markets and the emergence of new opportunities for all participating countries.
Given the fact that the population of the countries of the Great Silk Road is about 3 billion people, the most pressing problem today is to further strengthen cooperation in various fields, create an international transport corridor, and revise the purpose of this ancient road based on the present day. needs. The value of such a global scale of territory and economic potential is priceless. We must not forget this. Establishing cooperation between countries in the field of science will increase the economic potential of countries through the development of production.
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