CC BY
15
Нурутдинова А.Р., к.э.н., доцент, Казанский государственный технологический университет, г. Казань, Россия
Nurutdinova A.R., Senior Lecturer, Kazan State Technological University, Kazan, Russia
eastern and western approaches and
their differences: INDustrial cluster
policies and regional development in the age of globalization
различия восточного и западного подхода: политика кластерной системы и регионального развития в эпоху глобализации
В конце ХХ начале ХХ! века мировые страны-лидеры ускорили темпы социально-экономического развития на основе использования преимуществ международного научно-технологического сотрудничества как составляющей современных глобализационных процессов, которые предоставляют мировому хозяйству не только торговой, а все больше производственной целостности на основах использования инноваций.
Многоуровневое и многомерное изучение тенденций научно-технического развития, постоянная корректировка научных приоритетов стали важнейшими функциональными элементами экономических и политических процессов, механизмом формирования будущего облика национальных инновационных систем.
Развернувшиеся процессы глобализации привели к обострению технологического соперничества как средства либо сохранить лидерство, либо вырваться вперед, либо просто интегрироваться в новый миропорядок. Повсеместно пришло осознание того, что залогом успешного развития (как экономического, так и политического) является постоянное инновационное обновление. Вместе с тем возникла и укрепляется озабоченность, связанная с неясными социальными, экологическими и политическими последствиями использования ряда новых технологий: военных, энергетических, генетических, информационных.
Целью исследования является разработка научно-практических подходов по активизации инновационной деятельности стран Восточной Азии в условиях глобального трансфера технологий.
Аида Нурутдинова
Now it is the time of globalization, when every product, service or business activity faces global market opportunities and global competitors as well. As most SMEs in the manufacturing industries have been depending on their own market segment or niches, global competition can not only threaten their existing base and competitive strength. They may find their potential market chances and business partners in unknown countries or territories. Nevertheless, it must be understood that their existence and competence were also strongly supported by regional or local business concentration and networking, which is based on deep social division of labor and specialization, including typical subcontracting system controlled by a big manufacturer, as well as industrial districts where small manufacturing or trading firms come all together. Mostly SMEs cannot survive if they simply depend on own limited resources and specialized skill and technological capabilities alone.
Globalizing economy inevitably testifies whether individual regional economies and SMEs in them can compete and survive by showing their own competitiveness or not. Once it was widely believed that the very development of transporting and information technology and borderless economy inevitably break the barrier of distance and make regional economies or industries almost meaningless. Nevertheless, surprisingly a sort of reincarnation of regionalism started in the 1980s, and many academics and researchers then ignited debates as well as numbers of empirical research works on the importance of regional industrial agglomeration and local networking.
Among them, the most popular one is M. Porter's "industrial cluster" thesis, which is based on his own "diamond theory" and economic geography principles. Many governments and organizations throughout the world adopted that idea to deploy new policies to stimulate own regional economies and to strengthen global competitiveness, depending on "industrial cluster policy".
This paper tries to examine and compare
ongoing policy developments based on the idea of "industrial cluster" model and their effects on regional economies and SMEs in some regions, both in Japanese and European ones. Unsolved problems or good lessons are also picked up and discussed. Many examples and research materials were found and applied in a series of empirical research projects, one of which is the JASMEC's comparative research project last year, and another is funded by the Japanese Government's research grant. Secondary sources are also occasionally used.
1. Globally spreading idea of "industrial cluster" and the resurgence of "local economy".
As already mentioned above, a sort of reincarnation of regionalism occurred, and many researchers have been discussing on the importance of regional industrial agglomeration and local networking and their contemporary meaning in the age of globalization since the late 1980s. Names like Piore & Sabel, Krug-man, Scott, Storper, Saxenian, Florida, Keeble & Wilkinson are rather popular mostly in Western academic societies, and now well known to Japanese counterparts as well as policy makers. Local economies are one of the focuses of academic and public attention. The socio-economic background, however, is not necessarily favorable for local economies and communities. Slacking economies, declining industrial districts and threatened local community life in Japan since the 1990s have been widely recognized and variety of policy measures have been launched to rescue and stimulate existing local industries. Industrial "hollowing" problem and growing number of unemployment, as well as decreasing number of SMEs with less birthrate and more death rate are so far not yet reversed in most regions, and it is now widely believed that creating new industries which can be competitive and sustain economic society must be on the top of agenda.
M. Porter's theory of "industrial cluster model and competitiveness" is now the most popular one in Japan, and many governmental ministries, local governments and public or-
ganizations are enthusiastically trying to apply it to seek regional innovation system, promotion of local business networking and new industrial development. Not only that theoretical ideas, but its practical deployments and their attainments in Western countries, such as in Finland, Ireland, Sweden, UK or USA, are also attractive and frequently visited. As a result, new expected players are not necessarily existing local SMEs and skilled craftsmen, but universities, research institutes, or public institutions that can be linking together and creating critical mass for further innovation and industrial development.
We must be careful, however, if we are examining possible and sustainable development of new local industries and economic revitali-zation of local communities as a whole, about whether and what vast majority of SMEs and human resources can play and contribute, as "interconnected companies", "specialized suppliers" or "service providers", which are exploiting "geographic, cultural and institutional proximity" and maximizing the advantages of "knowledge, relationships and motivation", concerning the real formation and development of industrial clusters. Without many competent and vital SMEs and their joining, critical mass formation and robust business linkage cannot be completed, and local economies cannot enjoy sufficient spillover effect and balanced development.
2. EU's regional innovation strategies and industrial cluster projects.
In the early 1990s the European Union and its member states admitted their weak industrial competitiveness and planned to deploy more interventionist policy measures to enhance European industries' competitive power. On the other hand, the EU's regional policy, which had been mainly aimed to minimize regional disparity and to promote economic and social cohesion, was more oriented to developing new local industries and stimulating innovation. RIS (Regional Innovation Strategies), which was originally formulated in 1994 and launched in the late 1990s, are new challenge to combine regional, vocational training, RTDI, industrial, and enterprise policies at individual local level. In addition, in the 2000s more attention was given to new knowledge-based economy, also innovative activities, technology transfer, inter-firm cooperation and cooperation with higher education institutions and research centers were strongly encouraged, by using the keyword, inter-firm cluster development. Joint activities and project approaches were recommended.
There are a number of examples that show practical application of industrial cluster model and policy measures in the EU countries. One of them is the case of Western Scotland, where former traditional heavy industries had dominated but declined for decades. Scottish Enterprise [SE, former Scottish Development Agency - SDA] attracted FDI in the 1980s and made it "Silicon Glen". Later in order to be not depending on FDI alone but to promote sustainable and indigenous economic development, Scottish Enterprise Glasgow [SEG] and Strath-clyde European Partnership jointly developed RIS, and in 1999 SEG and Glasgow City Council released Joint Economic Strategy [JES], which aimed sustainable economic growth, creating jobs, tackling social exclusion, devel-
oping a competitive workforce and improving Glasgow's competitiveness. Thanks to the EU's structural funds, UK or Scottish government's support and SE's own budget and power, JES has been successful not only economically, but also socially. JES is now oriented to 'industrial cluster approach,' with target industries and seed technologies designated, universities, science parks, incubators, public agencies encouraged to join and link together, and partnership and project development strongly promoted.
Clear developments can be found in biotechnology and life science, software, optoelectronics and health care industries, and universities positive efforts promoting spinouts and technology licensing are rewarded by many success stories as high-tech SMEs growth, as well as supporting local supplying firms. JES is now under evaluation and modification, with more emphasis on the linkage between universities and industries. More infrastructure investment is also expected, as well as human resource development and regional learning programs.
Not only Western Scotland and Glasgow city, similar experiences were found in West Midlands, UK, and Shannon district, Republic of Ireland. Their common lessons are:
1. Strong commitment to 'cluster' policies.
2. Powerful autonomous core body and its own budget and authority.
3. Cooperation and partnership with regional bodies and local governments.
4. Comprehensive strategy and policy, with individual projects development.
5. Wide range of targeted industries.
6. Positive roles played by universities, promoting partnership between education and research activities.
7. Joint actions on regional and social issues and community developments.
8. Attention on human capital and human development.
3. METI's industrial cluster plan in Japan.
METI, the ministry in charge of economy, trade and industry in Japan, has been concen-
trated its efforts on the recovery of economy and industrial revitalization. In 2002, METI announced its "New strategy and promotion of technological innovation" plan, and designated target technologies. FY 2002's key measure was "formation of industrial clusters" to create new local industries and employment, and ¥29.4 billion was allocated to industrial cluster development measures (later increased to ¥52.2 billion).
METI approved 19 industrial cluster plans, which are based on METI's individual regional bureaus. Bureaus are expected to develop plans, to become nodes to coordinate local networking and alliances. Targeted industries are mainly biotechnology, ICT, electronics, neo manufacturing, new energy, ecology and recycling which reflect individual regions own backgrounds, scientific research and development [R&D] activities and COE quality or existing industrial agglomerations. Each project plan is promoting technology licensing, university spinouts, incubation activities, and venture investments. 3000 SMEs are expected involved. To implement plans, it is expected to exploit the Government's variety of subsidiaries and grants for science, R&D, trial experiment, business development and marketing operations.
MEXT also launched own "knowledge cluster creation scheme", in 2003. The scheme is based on national universities, institutes and MEXT's science promotion measures, and partnership between universities and industry is emphasized. 10 regions have been selected.
4. SME's roles and prospects in regional cluster project development
- Cases in Hokkaido, Okinawa and Kansai regions
Even if the word cluster is popular and 'industrial cluster policies' are prominent, local SMEs' practical roles or their possibilities within the policy frameworks are not necessarily clear. Obviously university spin-outs can be another example of growing SMEs based on new technological outcomes, their number in Japan does not seem so impressing despite of
the government's target figure and are mostly depending on governments' grants or subsidiaries, not to mention of sending successful products to the market and making stable returns to cover expenses and investment. Some distinguished academics have been supposed to be entrepreneurs who start and manage business ventures, but least impressing and convincing. Their daily engagements are still operating research laboratories with younger fellows (Hokkaido and some other cases).
Nevertheless, some SMEs are rather successful to take advantage of local industrial cluster policy measures or to develop own linkage with other firms or institutions to exploit new technological outcomes and untapped local resources. Geographical, cultural or institutional proximity, as well as considerable business accumulation and regional concentration are one of keys for their success.
In Hokkaido, before the METI's cluster plan launched, local business leaders took initiative to learn cluster ideal and some Western experiences, above all the Finish case. Their eager promotion resulted local cluster study groups, which are voluntarily organized from local business communities, farmers, government staff and academics. Groups have been trying to use local resources, existing business networks, technology accumulation and skill sets. As the METI bureau's 'super' cluster plan is targeted to IT and new biotechnology alone, both cluster ideas should be combined and show synergy spill over effect together.
Hokkaido Bio-industry Ltd., a joint venture among local entrepreneurs, has been concentrating on developing one of R&D outcomes produced by a local cluster study group and using local natural resources. Though its marketing effort was not easy one, academic researchers' support and advice, as well as various research and commercialization grants, made it to complete development and promote the sales of healthy foods products. Job creation is a little noticeable.
Bio Science Ltd. and Hokkaido System Science Ltd. are both engaged in custom DNA
synthesis business for research laboratories and successfully growing, even if their customers are not necessarily proximate ones. Very entrepreneurial founders of both firms are materializing there plenty of experiences and marketing skills, and show rivalry and cooperation in promoting local high-tech cluster development. As a typical supporting business for emerging technology development, both can show that committed efforts will be rewarded and keep unbeatable position in the high-tech field. Local subcontractors for them are also emerging as a proof of spillover.
In Okinawa, its lower profile in industrial development and scientific R&D, as well as its remote and scattered location, does not necessarily hinder the region to materialize cluster ideal. Typical can be found in ICT and call centre businesses, and applied (old) biotechnology. Okinawa Bio 21 Ltd., a new firm producing cosmetics made from local natural resources, takes advantage of Okinawa's unique image of healthy life style and longevity, Prefectural government's wide range of support concerning technology, management and sales, and word of mouth publicity. The regret is successful entrepreneurs in Okinawa are not necessarily from native Okinawa community, but migratory.
In Kansai (Kinki), though it covers huge metropolitan area and accumulates industrial, cultural and institutional complex, its economy has been gradually declining. METI authorized 4 cluster plans, biotechnology, revitalized manufacturing, IT, and energy and ecology. A very attractive success story is Millennium Gate Technology Ltd, which was once a small metal plating subcontractor, but is now making indispensable contribution to the production of high quality DNA chips by applying its own fine precision processing technology and licensed patent. Its skill and products are worldwide attention, and in its local industrial district a number of small manufacturers are stimulated or given allying chances.
Kinki energy and ecology cluster project attracts many local SMEs to join and develop
partnerships with other businesses and universities. Adhoc Kobe, WATT Kobe, and EE Net is typical project groups or joint venture among them, and supported by public bodies, academics and volunteer consultant engineers. Though it is not easy for these groups to get under way and to make stable returns, and voluntarily supporting consultants and coordinators frequently face difficulties, member SMEs' challenges are not often rewarded financially, but by claimed reputation outside and vitalized organizational nature and culture inside.
5. What should be learnt from the Western approaches?
After quickly comparing Western and Eastern experiences, above all in Scotland and in Japan, some suggestions could be extracted. Generally speaking, Japanese approaches so far are:
a) Weak local initiative, less systematic decision-making and policy development
b) Insufficient local partnership with different parties
c) Weak combination between industrial, regional, science and education policies, lacking comprehensive philosophy and concepts and often obstructed by vertical sectionalism
d) Unclear presence of core bodies and their power, as well as strategy bearer players
e) Narrow strategic targets, still strong high-tech obsession
f) Unclear 'relationship' concept with existing industrial agglomeration and local resources
g) Room left for devising effective joint measures with policies for SMEs (start-up, technology transfer, and product development support)
h) Existing public body's too strong presence and too much expectation on university spinouts (scientist /entrepreneur really appearing?)
i) More attention should be given on 'learning region and human development' needed
If these problems cannot be solved or minimized, the idea of 'cluster policy' might
be working reversely, as if indigenous local development can be sustained by central government's regulation, initiatives, budget and policy supports. For SMEs, industrial cluster developments and technological linkage and transfer may be opportunities, but they must understand some empirical implications.
1) "Supporting business" concept to be understood as a good chance
2) Exploiting variety of potential needs generated within cluster development or R&D activities
3) Keeping core/basic technological competence and applying or utilizing it in new business chances
4) Indispensable entrepreneurial challenge and devotion
5) Never waiting for technological seeds/ fruits to spill out from universities /research institutes
6) Important management control on product development process and marketing efforts
7) Committed alliance with other businesses and necessary powerful leadership
8) Collective technological or business supplementing collaboration demanded
9) 'Reputation' effect despite many failures and setbacks
10) Vitalizing effect on company's organizational nature and culture
In any cases, the final lesson is that 'Entrepreneurs must take the leadership!' Then, cluster policies will truly make sense. Obviously Cluster policies are useful and have much po-
tential on the one hand, and depending on local industrial clusters, focusing on national markets and supposing worldwide expanding opportunities on the other must develop them. If so, cluster developments may be one of future ideals for SMEs. #
REFERENCES
1. JSMEA (2003), White Paper on Small and Medium Enterprises in Japan 2003.
2. Research & International Division, JASMEC(2003), EU ni okeru Chiki Shinko to Chusho Kigyo (Regional Development and SME Policies in the EU).
3. European Commission (2000), The European Observatory for SMEs Sixth Report.
4. European Commission (2002a), Regional Innovation Strategies under the European Regional Development Fund Innovative Actions 2000-2002.
5. European Commission (2002b), European Competitiveness Report 2002.
6. Itami T. et al (eds.)(1998), Sango Shuseki no Honshitsu (The Fundamentals of Industrial Agglomeration), Yuhi-kaku.
7. Kamakura T. (2002), Sango Shuseki no Chiki Keizai Ron (Regional Economics and Industrial Agglomeration), Keiso Shobo. Keeble, D. & Wilkinson, F. (eds.) (2000), High-Technology Clusters, CUP
8. Industrial Cluster Plan Office, METI (2003), Chiki no Network Keisei ga Chuken/ Chusho Kigyo ni oyobosu Eikyo to Chosa Kekka (Research Report on the Effects in the SME/ Mittelstandt Businesses concerning the Developments of Regional Networks).
9. Kondo M. (2002), Daigaku hatsu Venture no Ikusei Sen-ryaku (Development Strategies for Fostering University Spin-outs), Chuo-Keizai-sha.
10. Mitsui I. (1992), The Importance of Subcontracting Relationship (A Paper for the Presentation at the 19th International Small Business Congress, Warsaw, reprinted in Economic Review of Komazawa University (Komazawa Daigaku Keizaigaku Ronshu), Vol.24, No.4). (1999),
11. SME's New Product Development and Its Collaborating Relationship - Problems, Prospects and Technology Transfer (A Paper for the Presentation at the 26th International Small Business Congress, Toronto) (2000),
12. "21 Seiki wo mukaeru EU chusho kigyo seisaku no shin dankai" (New phase of the EU's policies for SMEs in the 21st Century)', in Kokumin Seikatsu Kinyu Koko Chosa Kiho (Quarterly Research Report of NLFC), No. 55. do--- (2002),
13. "21 Seiki no sangyo senryaku to chusho kigyo no kanosei" (New industrial strategies and SMEs in regional economies: new business creation, revitalisation of industrial districts and industrial cluster policies)', in Shoko Kinyu (Commerce and Industry Finance), Vol.52, No.6.
14. Mitsui. Gendai Chusho Kigyo no Sogyo to Kakushin (SMEs' New Start-ups and Business Development), Doyu-kan (2001),
15. Miura T. "EU no chiiki kaihatsu to chusho kigyo" (EU's regional development policies and SMEs )', in Shoko Kinyu (Commerce and Industry Finance), Vol.51, No.10/11, (2001)
16. Nagayama M. (2002a), "Chiki ni okeru shin sangyo sosyutsu/ sangakukan renkei/ cluster seisaku no jissai" (The realities of regional new industry creation, industry-academic collaboration and cluster policies)', in Shin Kin Chukin Geppo (Monthly Journal of Shinkin Central Bank), Vol.1, No.12.
17. "Bio-cluster to chiiki jiritsu" (Bio clusters and regional independence)', RP Review, Vol9. No.3.
18. OECD (2000), Small and Medium Enterprise Outlook, OECD.
19. Faculty of Economics, Oita University (ed.)(2003), Global ka to Nihon no Keizai/ Shakai (Globalization and Japan's Economy/ Society), Minerva Shobo.
20. Porter, M.E. (1998), On Competition, Harvard University Business School Press.
21. Satake T. (ed.)(2003), Chusho Kigyo no Venture Innovation (Venturing Innovation in SMEs), Minerva Shobo.
22. Saxenian, A. L.(1994), Regional Advantage, HUP.
23. Yada T. & Matsubara H. (eds.)(2000), Gendai Keizai Chiri Gaku (Modern Economic Geography), Minerva Shobo.
