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ВОЗРАСТНАЯ МОРФОЛОГИЯ И АНТРОПОЛОГИЯ
DOES A CHILD GROW AT NIGHT, AT LEISURE OR IS IT EFFECT OF PHYSICAL MOVEMENTS? MORE QUESTIONS THAN ANSWERS
Napoleon Wolanski*
Department of Human Biology, Cardinal Wyszynski University Warsaw, Poland;
College of Physical Culture and Tourism, Pruszkow, Poland;
Departamento de EcologHa Humana, Centro de Investigation y de Estudios Avanzados, Mexico
Many years of my experiences caused that I have got some objections connected to results of studies on human growth, and to methods based on several mathematical procedures in biological studies, especially related to humans (fig. 1—4). Mathematicians are interested in idealizing of the world in a quantitative term of numbers, and using their mathematical formulas growth analyses were postponed for a half of the Century (Largo et al. 1978, Marubini 1978, Preece & Baines 1978, Bock & Thissen 1980, Stuetzle et al. 1980, Preece & Henrich 1981, Gasser et al. 1984—1991, Marubini & Milani 1986, Karlberg et al. 1987, 1994, Karlberg 1989—1998, Jolicoeur et al. 1992, Bock et al. 1994, Ramsay et al. 1995).
Boy
Girl
Ж"'
Fig. 1. Body height velocity curves of a boy and a girl; the pattern from British Standard Charts (Tanner & Whitehouse 1976) demonstrating the lack of analysis of the real course of growth (Butler et al. 1990)
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Fig. 2. The body height velocity curve of the JPA2 model (Jelicoeur et al. 1992) and the real curve of changes in a boy from Lublin Longitudinal Growth Study by Chrz№stek-Spruch (Hauspie 1998)
Biologists and other researchers of related sciences are interested in the real world, in which plenty of fractals, instead of simple lines and curves, exist (Wolanski 1962, 1962, 1964, Johnson et al. 1996, 2001, Johnson 1999, Butler 1990, Kaczmarek 2003, Siniarska & Zielmska 2002, Bock 2004, Siniarska & Wolanski 2005). Human ontogenesis especially presents such problems, because the nature and culture conditions and factors are very complicated (fig. 5 — Ulijaszek et al. 1998, Wolanski 1998, Bogin 1999). For biology and medicine the interpretation of fractals is valuable, what sometimes means important changes in human life.
The main aim of our study on Yucatan in 2002/3 concerns the answer a question whether the general regularity of seasonal differences in changes of height, weight and body components during ontogeny exists. If so, whether this phenomenon depends on cyclic changes in nature or this rather is an adjustment to local conditions and mode of life. The problem whether the pubertal spurt is a single deve-
Контакты: * Napoleon Wolanski E-mail
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JPA2
JPA2 i szeregi Fouriera
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Fig. 3. Body height velocity curves using PB1, BTT and JAP2 models and the real changes in a boy from Poznan, using also the Fourier method (Kaczmarek 2003)
Fig. 4. Body height velocity curves using patterns from the British Standard Charts (Tanner & Whitehouse 1976) demonstrating the lack of analysis of the real course of growth in manual and non-manual workers (data of Roberts 1874-6; Tanner 1981)
Fig. 4. Body height velocity curves using patterns Fig. 5. Seasonal changes in body weight: (a) real measurements and (b) normalized on the initial value (Jaworski 1962)
lopmental effort or series of changes with dominance of intensified increments was considered. The results show that permanent monthly or longer rates of stature increments and increments or declines of body mass do not exist. There are not similar regularities of changes even in groups of coevals of the same gender and within the youths coming from the same district. Each individual show a different rate of changes. Each variable shows a quite specific rate of changes. It suggests that the rate of development and changes of body mass and fat mass are occasional. This rather depends on living conditions, mostly on nutrition and mode of life (physical activity and leisure). The only regularity shows that rather short (1—3 months) periods of rapid growth (saltations) are divided by slower growth periods (stasis), but their duration and time of occurrence have a very individual character (Siniarska at al. 2004, Wolanski et al. 2004a,b). The similar observations were mentioned according to daily studies of a similar type in literature (Togo & Togo 1982—1988, Bogin 1998, Cole 1998).
According to short term (daily) measurements of growth (Hermanussen 1988—2002, Ashizawa & Kawabata 1990, Lampl 1992—2002 with coworkers, Caino 2004, 2006, 2009 with coworkers, Kelman-sky 2008), not only adolescents, but also infants (fig. 6), children and juveniles (fig. 7) grow one day (saltation, mini spurts), and next during several days a pause is observed (stasis, no changes, no increases). These increases and pauses are irregular, chaotic (Wales and Gibson 1994). Caino et al (2004)
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found in 10 healthy girls in pubertal period (exactly in time of pubertal adolescent spurt) 3 phenomena: stasis (no changes), steep changes (saltations) and continuous growth. The last one (no significantly detected changes) is below 0,3 cm per day. According to the Lampl synthesis (1999) saltations are responsible for the 100% increase of stature in observed period. In the Caino studies (fig. 8) 1-day saltations account for c. 30% (15.3 to 42.9%) of increases only. The association exists between entire growth during the study and the number of saltations (steep changes, fig. 9 - Caino et al. 2009). Pul-sative rhythm was found in ill or low birth infants (Greco et al. 1990, 1994), and biphasic changes (spurts separated by stasis or slow growth) in normal children (Thalange at al 1996), and in children with growth disorders (Tillman et al 2002).
Fig. 6. Daily increments of body length in infants from 90 till 218 days of life (Lample et al. 1992)
Fig. 7. Daily increments in a boy from 12,83 till 13,95 years of age (Lampl & Johnson 1993)
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Fig. 8. Daily increments of body height measured over 151 days in 3 from 12 girls 10—13 years old from Buenos Aires (Caino et al. 2004)
Number of steep changes
Fig. 9. The association between entire growth during the study and number of steep changes (Caino et al. 2009)
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In this light a question whether a child growths during the night and/or the day, and what factor is responsible for this phenomenon, is very important.
The circadian secretion of growth hormone is pulsating, but rather stable, whereas increments of bones are irregular (saltatory). Child grows one day, and then stasis is observed which can last several days. The secretion is not observed immediately after factor stimulation, but it happens several times during 24 hours, being more intense 60—120 minutes after awakening, intensive work load (movement), and 30—60 minutes after having some troubles (stress). Thus, the question arises how the process of growth is regulated since general biorhythms belong to endogamy phenomena.
It may depend not from a cyclic secretion (release) of human GH (half-life in the plasma continues 8—30 minutes), but an incidental sensitivity of receptors of target cells (including cells producing IGF) is responsible for growth saltations. Diurnal saltations are sporadic and stasis may last several or even 100 days. If so, how is this sensitivity regulated? What is the role of environmental (exoga-mic) factors? Lack of this knowledge disables us to direct the growth process.
A human stature is shorter in the evening than in the morning, and this is an effect of mechanical pressures on joints and changes in curvatures of spine caused by physical activity, as well as standing and sitting positions. Earth gravity, more intense physical activity and work load make this effect more profound. During the night joins’ relaxation and spine straightness take place what causes that an individual is taller in the morning than in the evening. Thus, it is normal that a child is taller in the morning than in the evening (fig. 10 — Tillmann and Clayton 2001). However, there is a belief, that children grow when sleep. But this phenomenon is also observed in adult persons. Whether it is thru or false we do not know for sure.
Height (cm)
1 ■ - - - I 1 ■* 3 -»-s X X • $ X * • •
-K • JUL • I— I
0900 Height (cm) 1200 1500 1800 2100
X 1JL • ' • ' ' X • X JL X X x *: *:
: • I x • T
1200 1500
1800 2100
Fig. 10. Daily changes in standing body height measured in stretched (x) and unstretched (o) position from 9 am till 9 pm, taken over 8 consecutive days (Tillmann & Clayton 2001)
Experiments on mammals, but not longitudinal studies, revealed that mechanical load affects bone architecture, its growth and remodeling (Frost 1964, 1997, 2003). Biological mechanism (including not only weight as the effect of gravitation) is very complicated and called mechanostat. The questions arise as to the cause of this effect. In what time of a day or night the linear increments of bones and bone mass take place? Does it influence the rate of growth processes? Does it depend on the hormone secretion or the movement stimulation of metaphysis? The results of studies show that alternate pressures and stretching (but not relaxation only), in certain limits, stimulate the growth of bone length (Weinmann & Sicher 1955, Evans 1957, Steinberg & Trueta 1981). Compression with strength 7—37 g/mm3 is the most effective, less compression does not stimulate, greater - retards growth (Geiser & Trueta 1958). Together with the higher compression the retardation of development is observed what might be caused by the energy competition. The metaphysial circulation is independent from the epiphysial one, and depends on alternate pressure and relaxation on the growth plate region (see Geiser & Trueta 1958, Frost 2003). Stimulation of blood circulation influences on energy and the building substrate transport
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to metaphysic (growth plate: germinal, flattened and hypertrophic zones), which causes the cell proliferation and bone extending processes and remodeling.
Growth processes, in particular stages of ontogeny, are differentially controlled by the neurohor-monal system (Ulijaszek et al. 1998, Bogin 1999). GHRH and GHRIH are neurochemical products of hypothalamus. GHRH stimulates GH secretion, whereas GHRIH inhibits GH secretion. There is a cyclic GH secretion, but an incidental sensitivity of receptors of target cells for IGF/hGH seems to play more important role. GHRH and GHRIH are antagonistic, their secretion is negatively correlated, and their activity is alternately cyclic (pulsating). Most of body cells have special receptors which are sensitive on GH, what causes the production of IGFs by most of them stimulating bone and muscle growth and influencing on insulin secretion and fat metabolism. Rather pulsating changes of GHRH in relation to GHRIH than changes in frequency of GHRH influence on irregularity of growth, and sequence and duration of saltations and stasis. It is probable that the process of neurohor-monal synchronization is on organismal level, including complexes of cells.
On the other hand, different stages of ontogenesis are characterized by a diverse reception of environmental factors. This may depend on ecosensitivity which is differentiated between individuals and changes with age. It is also possible, that natural, social and cultural environments create separate complexes of growth conditions in particular societies and populations. We do not know to what extent nutrition and physical activity may influence this phenomenon, understood as physical and psychological development. Growth processes, in particular stages of ontogeny, are differentially controlled by the neurohormonal system. On the other hand, different stages of ontogenesis are characterized by a varying reception of environmental factors. There have not been studies on human ecosensitivity, which is closely related to heterosis phenomena. Current studies have revealed that heterozygotic individuals are more sensitive to environmental factors. However, these results need to be verified. Some researchers have expressed doubts concerning existence of heterosis and homosis in humans, pointing out that the observed effect does not have the genetic origin but is rather caused by socioeconomic conditions. Another problem, whether biological sensitivity is modified by cultural behavior, is also very important.
There are two phenomena observed: further social stratification caused by differentiated education and occupations and a more profound difference between rich and poor people. Instead of looking for causes of such anomalies, it seems to be more important to establish the basic needs for particular families. It is possible, that the percentage of population with basic needs covered in the whole population would be a better indicator of wellbeing. It is also possible, that the global indicator presenting living conditions, on the one hand, and biological status of the population, on the other hand, would present more objective picture showing the quality of the new generation of children and youth.
The main aim of science is discovering and summing up all technological achievements, which serve in the verification of knowledge processes. The process of cognition realized by scientific methods cannot be an only tool for a professional researcher. Increasing of leisure time means that scientific inquires can be a way of self-realization of each intelligent human being.
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