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25circle of subjects entitled to appeal was limited by the estates.
The constitutional right of appeal was institutionalized in the Constitution of the USSR of 1977, however, it did not grant people the right to protect their own interests. And only under the Constitution of Russia of 1993, citizens of the Russian Federation have the right to appeal in person and make individual and collective appeals to State bodies and local self-government bodies. Federal Law of May 2, 2006 No 59-FZ On the Procedure for Consideration of Appealsby Citizens of the Russian Federation established the key principles of, procedure for and guarantees of consideration of appeals by people by state bodies, local government bodies and officials. Under the law, the right to appeal to public authorities is protection of people's rights by government bodies through lodging appeals to them.
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Adamova, E. R. Evolution of People's Right to Appeal to Public Authorities in Russia // Business in Law - 2008. - No 4. -P. 98.
Belyaev, I.D. History of the Russian Legislation: College texbook/ Ed. Yu.V. Krivosheev StPetersburg, 1999 - P. 49-50.
Civil Legislative Initiative as a Form of Direct Democracy [Electronic Resource] Access mode: http://www.jourclub.ru/35/59/.
Kaskarov A.A. On Determination of the Content of Public Authority in the Modern Democratic Society // Bulletin of the Moscow University of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of Russia. - 2015. - No 9. - P. 35.
Constitution of the Russian Federation: official text // Code of the Russian Federation. - 2014. - No 31. - Art. 4398.
On State Control: Decree of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee // Code of Justice of the Russian Soviet Federated Socialistic Republic. - 1919. - No 12. - Art. 122. (invalid).
Russian Legislation of the X-XX centuries. In nine volumes. Vol. 2. Legislation During the Period of Emergence and Strengthening of the Russian Centralized State/ Ed. O.I. Chistyakov. Moscow, 1985. - P. 54-55.
Skryabina, M.V. Implementation of People's Constitutional Right to Appeal to Public Authorities: thesis for a Candidate Degree in Law Sciences - Moscow. - P. 15.
Council Code of January 29, 1649 [Electronic Resource]. Access mode: http://base.garant.ru/57791500.
Chicherin B.N, Essays in the History of the Russian Law. Moscow, 1858. - P. 4-5.
Chuvashova, T.A. Legal Regulation of Begging Letter as a Document Type in XV - XXI centuries // Topical Issues of Information and Document Management Support (VII All-Russia International Research to Practice Students' Conference 23.03.2018) [Electronic Resource]. - Access mode:
http://www.tsutmb.ru/nayk/nauchnyie_meropriyatiya/int_konf/vseross/aklual_probl_doc_2018.
DIFFERENT THEORETICAL APPROACHES TO THE STUDY OF NEOLOGISMS AND THE PROBLEM OF DEFINING
The article deals with different theoretical approaches to the study of neologisms. The most important problem in the study of neologisms is that the main definition of neologisms is too generalized, that is why, at least, five different definitions of neologisms exist, depending on the sphere of usage. The main reason of emergence of so many neologisms recently is closely connected with the process of word globalization which reflects new realities. Another reason is that neologisms appear in English due to connection with social movements, because English is actively enriched through vocabulary related to representatives of various professions, social layers, groups and ages. At the present stage, there are various classifications of neologisms, but all of them indicate that neologisms in
modern English are mainly associated with the rapid development of information and mobile technologies, achievements in various fields of science.
Keywords
neologisms, different theoretical approaches, lexicography, the vocabulary of English language
AUTHOR
Timofei V. Plotnikov,
Bachelor's degree student of the department of foreign languages Tomsk State Pedagogical University, Tomsk 60, Kievskaya Street, Tomsk, 634061, Russia bayda1998@mail.ru
1. Introduction
The lexical composition of the language is its most mobile part. The vocabulary is constantly being improved, updated, and at the same time reacts to changes in the surrounding reality, i.e., it develops along with the change in various phenomena of reality, which is more expressed in the appearance of new words, which at the same time have a temporary connotation of novelty. There is no doubt that modern life urgently requires the study of everything new that appears in the language. The study of new words, the analysis of ways and means of their occurrence in a language always reflects the most characteristic trends in the change in its vocabulary at the present stage of development. The development of the language is largely determined by the development of its wordformation system, the formation of new words, the changing of existing ones, the increase or decrease in productivity of words, and many other factors of such process. The emergence of new words is carried out, first of all, as a reflection in the language of the needs of society in the expression of new concepts that constantly arise as a result of the development of science, technology, culture, social relations, etc. Neologisms, especially the emergence of new words, have always been one the most important problems of linguistics, establishing trends in linguistic processes in the language, improving the theory and practice such branch of lexicology as lexicography. A lot of neologisms appear in the scientific and technical language as a result of the rapid progress of science and technology. However, some frequent and often used new coined words are still not the part of any reliable dictionary. The appearance of a new lexical-semantic variant of the word in the pragmatic aspect of variability is considered as a result of variation in its use in different communication situations depending on the social, territorial, national, age, professional and other statuses of the communication participants. The same vocabulary is implemented differently in situations of the same type by representatives of different layers of native speakers. As a result of using the word in an atypical situation (context) for the speakers of another sociolect (the language of a particular socio-professional group), it acquires a new connotation of meaning, which is then formed into a separate lexical and semantic version of the word. On the other hand, any semantic novelty gives rise to pragmatic novelty. However, in the theory of the study of neologisms in the English language there are still many problematic areas of research, including, first of all, a systematic analysis of factors, stages, the mechanism of the emergence of new words and meanings in terms of both extra-linguistic (sociolinguistic or functional-pragmatic correlation), and the linguistic conditionality of the prevailing productive models in the language. It is indisputably established such functional and stylistic varieties of modern English as the style and
language of mass communication (press, television, radio), such areas of public life as advertising, business communication, science, technology, electronics, medicine, politics, finance, fashion for a number of sociolinguistic reasons, they are the main suppliers of new vocabulary in modern English.
2. Research
The term «neologism» came from the French language (néologisme) in the nineteenth century, and initially was borrowed from Greek: «neologisme» - «neos» means new, while «logos» means words. Based on the etymological meaning, we can conclude that neologism is understood as any new word that has appeared in the language. At the same time, neologism refers to various new linguistic units, this is why, the term has significantly expanded its meaning and has lost unambiguity. All this led eventually to differences in the interpretation of the concept under consideration.
In the Oxford English Dictionary, we find the following definition of neologism: «new word or expression». Note that this definition is the most general. Also, there is another definition given in the dictionary of linguistic terms, where the author considers neologism as a word created to indicate a new subject or to express a new concept.
As for now, there are five main theoretical approaches that can be distinguished:
1 ) Stylistic, where neologism is understood as a word and the novelty is depending on its new stylistic use. An example is the words that come into the language from jargon into everyday language: downtime or «time when someone does not work or does not show any activity».
2) Denotative, where neologism is a word that appeared with the aim of naming new objects and concepts. Examples include words such as smartphone, selfie, e-book.
3) Structural, where neologisms are words that have a completely new linguistic and acoustic form and structure. For example, hobbit in in the series of «Harry Potter» books.
4) Etymological, where neologism is a word already existing in the language that has developed a new meaning. For example, the word umbrella has always meant «umbrella», but recently the word has the meaning of «protection from exposure» (military sphere).
5) Lexicographical, where neologism is a new word, not fixed in dictionaries. An example is cinematherapy or «using films as therapy». This neologism has 70,000 citations in the Google search system, but it is still not in any dictionary.
Summarizing the approaches above, we can conclude that even the novelty factor common to all definitions is ambiguous and very contradictory, because the researcher needs to determine for himself whether a certain language unit is new for all members of a society or only for a specific group of native speakers, for everyday language or only for a specific sublanguage, etc.
There is an opinion that there are precisely lexical neologisms that should be considered as «any new vocabulary and phraseological units that were formed in a language at a particular stage of its development and denote new concepts that appeared as a result of the development of science and technology, new living conditions, sociopolitical changes». Many of these neologisms can be considered as terms, because they correspond to terms in the following aspects: accuracy, absolute and relative uniqueness, simplicity and clarity, independence from the context, lack of polysemy, expressiveness, and hence the establishment of synonymous relationships with ordinary non-terminological words based on emotionally tinted, expressive and stylistic differences.
Speaking of English language, it can be argued that this language, like other developed languages, seems very dynamic being in a state of constant change. The English language is replenished in various ways, including creating new lexical units. Neologisms are new words or meanings entrenched in the language naming new objects and thoughts.
Moreover, there has been a so-called «neological boom» in English language in the last twenty years, which leads to the annual appearance of a large number of new words. To obtain a certain status in the language, neologisms must go through the stages of socialization (consolidation in society) and lexicalization (consolidation in the language). At the same time, the process of lexicalization includes both the presence of the skills of using neologism by native speakers and the determination of the conditions for its use in different contexts. After passing through all stages of analysis and approval, the lexical unit of one or another structural type is registered in the dictionary of neologisms of the English language.
Neologisms of modern English affect all spheres of life in the English-speaking society, but it can be argued that a particularly large number of new words appear precisely in connection with the development of new technologies and the Internet. For example, to indicate companies that work online, the word dotcoms appeared, which can also be written separately - dot coms and through the hyphen dot-coms. This neologism is used as a noun and adjective. Another example is the name of the word Ctrl-Alt-Delete, formed from the keys of the same name. At the present stage, this neologism is used with the verbs to hit and to press in the meaning of «rethink something, start something again».
World globalization has also led to the emergence of various neologisms, including the following glocalization (creation of goods and services for a globalized market, taking into account the peculiarities of national culture), globophobes (opponents of globalization), globophobic (related to opponents of globalization), globality (globalization of an interconnected economy) and globophobia (negative attitude towards globalization).
Neologisms penetrate into the business sphere reflecting new realities, especially when it comes to management and marketing. Here are a few examples: ghost brand (a well-known trademark in the past whose products are still sold but are not popular), mass customization (individualization of a product or service, performed in large quantities), to kitchen-sink (to disclose information about poor financial situation firms), barn-raising (attracting employees to solve a specific problem from various departments of the company), brandstorming (developing a new strategy for a brand, as well as a competition for the best name for a new brand). In the field of visual arts, cinema, television and film technology, various experiments are also observed, accompanied by the creation of a large number of neologisms in English language. Such neologisms can be associated both with new style techniques in one form or another of art, and with new technical means for their implementation. Here are a few examples: sampling (selective method), sit-tragedy (soap opera), slamdancing (dance with collisions).
Many neologisms appear in English in connection with social movements. English is actively enriched through vocabulary related to representatives of various professions, social groups and ages. Examples include the following: shareowner (shareholder), street fighter (brawler), style-counselor (adviser or consultant), staff-doctor (doctor's degree in a hospital), etc. Thus, by neologisms, we mean new lexical units arising in connection with the social need to designate a new subject or phenomenon, preserving novelty for native speakers and not related to general literary use.
Neologisms are a specific mirror of language development and formation. They reflect the adaptation of the language to the conditions of its functioning changing under the influence of external factors. The formation of neologisms is undoubtedly influenced by the cultural-historical and socio-political conditions of life.
The reasons of the appearance of neologisms are traditionally divided into two groups: external and internal. External to the language reasons are related to the need to designate a new phenomenon. Over time, individual language forms are fixed and repeated by the majority of subjects of communication, so non-verbalized models are
being rooted in the minds of people, that is why, development of language is going on. The internal nature of the emergence of neologisms is most often associated with a rethinking of the meaning of a word that existed previously in the language.
Analysis of studies of neologisms showed that the following main causes of the appearance of neologisms can be distinguished:
1) The emergence of new technical means leads to the simultaneous appearance of new words. For example: gadget, which means a non-standard technical device. Another example is the word browser, which at the present stage is so firmly embedded in the language, that gradually becomes the category of common vocabulary. Another example is the word interface, which is understood as a combination of means, methods of interaction between system elements.
2) The desire for saving of place, for reduction, that can be seen in the example of modern online communication: 2 - to, 4 - for, b4 - before, qt - quit, cu - see you, iykwim - if you know what I mean; y - why. New words that appear as a result of the law of saving language means significantly complicate the understanding of communication, especially when it comes to a person who does not belong to a particular group.
3) New political trends also lead to neologisms. The neologism obamamania arose in English during the presidential term of Barack Obama, which denoted the adherents of the US president, who believed that his rule would bring better times. The Urban dictionary has a whole group of neologisms dedicated to the American leader. Here are some examples: obamanomics (raising taxes for the rich and lowering taxes for the middle class), obamarama (the joy of President Obama's term), obamalicious (pragmatism and justice in actions), obamanos (a word derived from the Spanish «vamanos», denoting «let's go», so here it basically means «let's go with Obama»), obamanation (the name of the United States, if B. Obama remains president), obamafication (satisfaction from the changes occurring in connection with the presidency of B. Obama), obamanon (B. Obama's popularity in the elections), obamalypse (important changes made by B. Obama).
4) Various social phenomena that lead to the emergence of new words. Based on the analysis of the word spy dictionary, the following new words can be noted that record the relationship to age, lifestyle, family, etc.: babydult (baby + adult) - people who resolutely refuse to attribute themselves to middle age, preferring to significantly expand the framework of youth; grays on trays (a category of people who are approaching retirement age or already retired, but continue to engage in sports such as hockey, baseball, running and even auto racing and snowboarding).
5) Environmental issues also lead to neologisms. So, environmental problems are reflected in the following categories: hypermilers (environmentally responsible people who are improving their cars and driving skills to reduce fuel consumption); locavores (consumers who prefer to buy local products).
6) The popularity of social networks requires new words to refer to phenomena such as «removal from friends», which leads to the appearance of the words defollow and unfriend, the last became the word of 2009 according to the compilers of the Oxford English Dictionary. Also, there was such an expression as Facebook fatigue, which means the result of abuse of social networks, as well as password fatigue - the need to remember a huge number of passwords.
7) The existence of various subcultures leads to the emergence of new words. So, relying on dictionary articles by merriam webster, it should be noted that in English there are such words and phrases as bling-bling (expensive, catchy jewelry) and crunk (one of the forms of southern hip hop).
Thus, at the present stage, there are many different causes of neologisms in the English language. However, all of them are, due to human activities, aimed at self-development and self-improvement.
Subsequently, the causes of neologisms form a few different classifications. The classical one, where all neologisms are divided into the following groups:
1) Neologisms proper;
2) New formations;
3) New meanings.
The following neologisms differ in the classification of neologisms proposed by K. Brown:
1) New lexemes;
2) New sememes;
3) Transaminations.
S. S. Volkov offers a typology that is built taking into account the basic and additionally selected criteria for segregation of vocabulary of English origin:
1) by lexical and semantic features;
2) by the method and degree of assimilation;
3) by the method of borrowing;
4) by the method of derivation;
5) by the method of composition.
The method of borrowing combines the following features, such as:
• morphological (partial or full borrowing);
• semiotic (formal or substantial borrowing);
• stylistic (sphere of usage);
• assimilative (process of adaptation of borrowed words).
According to the basic lexical-semantic attribute, the authors subdivide all units into lexical and semantic ones. Lexical borrowings of English origin are subdivided into lexical and morphemic ones.
So, on the basis of the above classifications, it can be argued that all neologisms can be divided into 4 groups, each of them also includes additional units, which is presented below:
1) By the method of emergence:
• lexical;
• semantic.
2) By the method of formation:
• the formation of new words (meanings and uses) by rethinking and analogies in connection with the emergence of new realities or phenomena;
• the emergence of new phrases (rethinking in a group of words) and the further development of new meanings through an intermediate link - a phrase;
• the formation of new words by borrowing: the internationalization of vocabulary and adaptation of borrowed words.
• morphological methods of the formation of neologisms (suffixal, prefixal, suffixal-prefixal, non-suffixal word-formation methods, as well as wordcomposition and abbreviation).
3) By the condition of creation:
• general language neologisms;
• individually-stylistic neologisms;
• occasionalisms;
• compatible neologisms.
4) For the purpose of creation and usage:
• stylistic neologisms;
• peripheral neologisms;
• neologisms-agnonyms;
• phraseological neologisms;
• neologisms-ephemerisms.
Thus, among all the classifications, the most complete and accurate classification seems to us the method of emergence, the method of formation, the condition of creation, the purpose of creation and usage.
3. Results and conclusions
Having studied theoretical sources on the topic of research, we came to the following conclusions:
1) Neologism is a word or phrase that is new in form and meaning at the current time and has a new sociocultural meaning, as well as units already in the nominative fund, the meaning of which has transformed due to changes in discursive relevance.
2) The main reasons of the emergence of neologisms in English language are the emergence of new technical means, the desire for language economy, political trends, social phenomena, environmental issues, the growing popularity of social networks, and the presence of various subcultures. The appearance of neologisms in the English language is a reflection of the needs of society in the expression of new concepts that constantly arise as a result of the process of word-globalization and the development of science, technology, culture and social relations.
3) At the present stage, there are various classifications of neologisms, but all of them indicate that the representation and functioning of neologisms in modern English are mainly associated with the rapid development of information and mobile technologies, achievements in various fields of science, professional activities of a person, as well as rethinking of existing words and expressions. In addition, neologisms very actively appear in the process of online communication, because of the specifics of this type of communication.
4. Recommendations
The research will be useful for all people who work in a linguistic field. Often scientists are not certainly sure what neologism is, and the article has all possible definition depending on the field of research. Especially, it can be practical for lexicographers because neologisms are the most important part of the development of English language, and today's neologism can easily become a frequently used word tomorrow. Moreover, the article deals with all existing classifications and summarizes all reasons of occurrence of new words in the English language.
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Oxford dictionary online. Retrieved 2019, from https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/neologism
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TRENDS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF "OMBUDSMAN" DEFINITION IN MODERN LEGAL SOCIETY
The relevance of the problem under study is due to the increased role of the ombudsman institution in the modern legal society. The aim of the study is to generalize approaches to the concept of "ombudsman" through the prism of modern development trends and the requirements of society to protect fundamental rights and freedoms in the legal space. The leading approach to the study of this problem is the formal legal and historical methods. The study resulted in a collective definition that revealed the essence of the phenomenon under study, and highlighted the main directions of improving the institution of a public official appointed to investigate violation of human rights. These provisions formed the basis of the conclusion on the results of the legal and theoretical framework analysis. The research materials can be used for further study of the ombudsman institution.
Keywords
ombudsman, human rights and freedoms, legal protection, control, efficiency, trends, mediator
AUTHORS
Zhanna B. Ryzhova,
Senior Lecturer, Mid-Volga Institute (branch) of the All-Russian State University of Justice (Russian Law Academy under the Ministry of Justice of Russia), Saransk 6, Fedoseenko Street, Saransk, 430003, Russia
Maria V Palchikova,
Candidate of Law, Associate Professor, Mid-Volga Institute (branch) of the All-Russian State University of Justice (Russian Law Academy under the Ministry of Justice of Russia), Saransk 6, Fedoseenko Street, Saransk, 430003, Russia
