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9It is widely believed that the Ukrainian labor market is dualistic: the unregulated commercial sector pays high salaries and takes advantage of labor flexibility, and the tightly regulated traditional sector with low salaries and inflexible labor is an obstacle to economic reform. The key conclusion implies the need to put an end to job security and increase the flexibility of the use of labor resources by moving from permanent labor contracts and collective agreements to individual fixed-term contracts, which are regulated by the Civil Code, and not special labor legislation.
6. Conclusion
This article is intended for scientists, specialists in the field of labor relations, researchers on the problems of the functioning of the labor market, labor market infrastructure workers, teachers, students of economic specialties.
REFERENCES
The Law of Ukraine "On Remuneration of Labor" dated March 24, 1995, No. 108/95-BP.
The Law of Ukraine "On Vacations" dated November 15, 1996 No. 504/96-BP.
Artyukh, E. How many hours a week do they work in different countries. http://evroru.com/skolko-chasov-rabotayut-v-raznyx-stranax.
Balakhnin, G. S., Sumtsov, V. G., Filippova, I. G. (2004) State regulation of employment. Lugansk: Publishing house SNA them. V. Dahl. 256 s.
Gabdulina, Yu. (2016) If you are not paid a salary. URL: http://www.prostopravo.com.ua /trudoustroystvo/stati/esli_vam_ne_platyat_zarplatu.
Zavinovskaya, G. T. (2000) Labor Economics. K .: KNEU. 200 sec
Luzgina, Yu. V. (2008) Assessment of the potential effectiveness of the youth labor market // Diss .. cand. econ. Sciences: 08.00.05. Novosibirsk 161 p.
Musaev, B. A. (2017) Precarious work as a form of implementation of the conditions of the new economic structure. Science of Science. T. 9. No. 2.
Oganesyan, L.O., Kuchkovskaya, N.V. (2006) Mechanism of the functioning of the labor market of the agricultural sector // Bulletin of the Lower Volga Agro-University Complex: science and higher professional education. No. 3. S. 76-85.
Supyan, V. (2001) Sphere of labor in the USA: new trends and challenges of the 21st century. // Problems of theory and practice of management. No. 3/01. S. 96-102.
DEVELOPMENT OF A NEW IDEA OF SELF-KNOWLEDGE AND LOVE IN MODERN PHILOSOPHY
The article analyzes the understanding of the ideas of self-knowledge and love in the works of modern Western, Russian and Ukrainian scholars. The author makes an attempt to outline the relationship of the ontological aspects of self-knowledge and its philosophical foundations as a whole with the aspects of love phenomenon in the works of modern authors. The article is aimed at analyzing the problems of self-knowledge and love in modern social and philosophical studies, as well as identifying the relationship between them. The materials in this article may be useful for finding new possibilities for interpreting the concepts of self-knowledge and love. The study of the conceptual field of the terms love and self-knowledge allows us to argue that their relationship determines a certain condition, life-essential self-determination, attitude to the world and to ourselves.
Keywords
love, self-knowledge, modern philosophy, reception of concepts
AUTHOR
Alexander M. Shragin-Kats,
Postgraduate Student, Philosophy and Methodology of Cognition Chair, Faculty of History and Philosophy, National University named after I.I.Mechnikov, Odessa 2, Dvoryanskaya Street, Odessa, 65000, Ukraine [email protected]
1. Introduction
The problems of self-knowledge and love intersect throughout the history of philosophical thought in the relationship of the actual social issues, in particular, from the perspective of the social regulatory role of love in the process of self-knowledge. The relationship of ontological aspects of self-knowledge and its philosophical foundations as a whole with the aspects of love phenomenon can be traced in the works of modern scholars.
Self-knowledge, as a specific form of cognitive activity, contributes to the transformation of an individual into personality, and performs a cultural and anthropological role in the process of historical and evolutionary formation of mankind. Self-knowledge is constant and continuous positioning of consciousness, our intention to be ourselves. The genesis of self-consciousness is a way of searching for the personal essence, it is a way of gradually discarding everything that is not truly essential. Here, love seems to be a constant in a person, with the exception of everything.
The analysis of the concepts of love and self-knowledge in the works of Western, Ukrainian and Russian modern scholars is an attempt to find modern understanding of the guidelines existing in the mind of every person, aimed at filling life with unique content, allowing to realize that a person is capable of self-improvement, self-realization, and self-change. Love is considered as a special quality of social relations, which also acts as a regulator in the process of self-knowledge, thus linking the problem of love and self-knowledge, and including them into the field of sociological issues. Without the interrelationship of self-knowledge and love, subsequent self-awareness seems to lead to the tragedy of human existence in society.
2. Methodology
The leading approach to the study of this problem is discourse analysis as one of the synthetic approaches to the definition of "self-knowledge" concept and the identification of relationships with the concept of "love" by modern researchers. In addition, the use of systematic approach involves a comprehensive review of various aspects of love, self-knowledge and their relationship. It seems to us that such an approach allows us to identify the paramount importance of love phenomenon in the context of self-knowledge and to identify the interdependence between the challenge of society and the answer - raising the question of self-knowledge. The systematic approach allowed us to consider various ideas about love and self-knowledge, showed similarities and differences in their interpretations.
In the framework of the comparative historical approach, we can see the interdisciplinary nature of the topic under consideration. The author emphasizes the dialogical nature of the works, the concepts of scholars, which are analyzed based on a
comparison of their positions, and the search for new, unexpected possibilities for interpreting the classics. The comparative historical analysis made it possible to determine the genesis and transformation of the problem under consideration. Using the synthesis method, we can trace the unity of the transpersonal and the personal in raising the question of love and self-knowledge.
In modern philosophy, they consider the concept of self-knowledge most often in the context of the fundamental problems of (self) consciousness and rationality. A person's ability to explicitly recognize his own beliefs, intentions and perception of reality in general is the subject of a series of works by A. Byrne and M. Boyle, in particular, their joint essay "Self-knowledge and transparency", consisting of two parts "Transparency, Belief, Intention" , authored by A. Byrne [24], and "Transparent Self-Knowledge", written by M. Boyle [22]. The authors develop two approaches to explaining this phenomenon: inferential and reflexive. Byrne's inferential approach suggests that self-knowledge is determined by the transparency of the individual's experience regarding beliefs and principles, that is, by introspection of the individual experience of perceptions.
The reflexive approach, developed in addition to M. Boyle by R. Moran [30], suggests an alternative epistemological explanation of the individual's consciousness "transparency" as a prerequisite for the process of self-knowledge. According to Boyle, self-knowledge has no fundamental differences from the process of knowing other objects. In this case, self-knowledge is a special case of knowledge in general, where selfness is the object of knowledge. Moreover, the opinions that the individual develops in the process of self-knowledge are an expression of his "doxastic self-determination." They reflect the ability of a person to form specific prerequisites for his beliefs [21]. In this regard, M. Boyle identifies two types of self-knowledge: active, associated with the mind and the individual's awareness of his own judgments; and passive, responsible for perception, through which we know about our own feelings [23].
Self-knowledge as an attribute of consciousness is examined in the work of K. Hossack "Self-knowledge and Consciousness" [27]. For this area of research, the starting point is well-known Brentano's thesis, according to which the state of consciousness is postulated if it is identical to the introspective knowledge of its own specificity. Developing the thesis of Brentano, K. Hossack comes to unification of three blocks of problems in the concept of self-knowledge - introspection, consciousness and knowledge into a single problem of the metaphysical nature of conscious conditions. Solving a similar problem of the correlation of self-knowledge and self-addressing, self-reference, R. Howell uses the theses of Descartes and Hume. According to the first of them, our ability to state "I think" is a basic definition of self-knowledge; according to the second, our introspections cannot reveal anything more than different "impressions" in it. Trying to reconcile the classical theses of Descartes and Hume, R. Howell develops the concept of self-reference, according to which the reliability of our consciousness in its fundamental beliefs comes only from the necessary minimum of knowledge that determines it.
For modern analytical philosophy, closely related to the concepts of consciousness and self-knowledge, the problem of their rationality is rather relevant. The work of T. Spitzley "Self-knowledge and Rationality" examines the relationship and interdependence of human rationality and self-knowledge [32]. The author emphasizes two questions in this connection: firstly, is rationality a necessary condition for the individual to realize self-knowledge; secondly, is self-knowledge necessary for the individual in order to have rationality. The author's concept of self-knowledge, distinguishing, in particular, basic and local rationality, and considering the problem of self-knowledge need separately for each of them, allows one to answer both questions affirmatively. Another approach to the problem was found in the work of B. Reed with the same name [31]. B. Reed summarizes the results of philosophical quest in which the theory of individual's self-knowledge is
based on the fundamental relations between the intentional states of the individual and his judgments about these states. The very existence of these relations is determined by the rationality of the individual. Thus, there are ways of thinking through which we have self-knowledge, not having direct relations between the intentional states of consciousness and the second-order judgments about them. This concept is designed to solve the contradiction between the ideas about the individual as a rational agent, developing a strategy of optimal action in accordance with "rational" goals, and the dubious rationality of the initial premises (beliefs of the individual) on which these goals are based. The author believes that the acceptance of a purely epistemic position in relation to oneself is precisely the thing that guarantees the individual's beliefs are found in the field of critical reasoning.
An analytical concept involving ditinguishing of opinions (beliefs) of the first and second order is developed by A. Pakholik-Zhuromskaya [12]. The author considers self-knowledge from the standpoint of inactivism. A. Pakholik-Zhuromskaya makes two assumptions: that the subject of self-knowledge receives direct knowledge about the intentional content of his attitudes; and that the content of these attitudes is determined by external factors that may not be known to the subject. Thus, the subject (individual) has limited access to the intentional content of his own beliefs, or his determinants are perceived as conditions for satisfying the mental states of the individual. The author shows that in this case there is an obvious conflict between the theses put forward, which suggests the presence of hidden subtext in first-order beliefs.
Ethical aspects of self-knowledge phenomenon are considered by modern scholars, as a rule, in the framework of Kantian constructions reception, which is reflected in the works of O. Ware and J. S. Zhong [6; 37]. In addition, it should be noted the ongoing attempts to explain the phenomenon of self-knowledge (the need for self-knowledge) within the framework of human consciousness using evolutionary theory, as it is done by P. Carruthers, L. Fletcher and B. Ritchie [25], and understanding the variability of self-knowledge phenomenon in cross- cultural aspect [36].
In modern Ukrainian and Russian philosophical thought, the phenomenon of self-knowledge is most often examined through attempts to actualize earlier philosophical constructions, which, however, do not take the form of receptions. So, a series of works by Ukrainian scholars is devoted to the self-knowledge concept of G. S. Skovoroda. These are the works of L. Kharchenko and L. Voronovskaya [1; 17]. Self-knowledge is studied through the prism of moral and ethical philosophy of Socrates, the original version of which was given by G.S. Skovoroda. Self-knowledge is the content of human existence; its reaching is conceived through the dialogue of the individual with other people and with his own "self". The thesis "know yourself" is the starting point of philosophizing and the directing of the search for philosophical truth. O. V. Golubovskaya refers to the concept of spiritual self-knowledge in the philosophy of Aurelius Augustine, outlined in his "Confession" [4]. In this case, the Christian doctrine is developed about the goal of self-knowledge as the meeting of a person's soul with the Creator, as a manifestation of an individual's free will. The ethics of self-knowledge is revealed in personal desire for self-improvement and in the search for the highest truth and ideals, which is a prerequisite for creating a harmonious spiritual person.
Therefore, we can observe two main approaches to the problem of self-knowledge in modern philosophy. An epistemological approach prevails in analytical philosophy, usually with receptions to the philosophy of the New Age; the concept of self-knowledge is close to the problem of consciousness, its nature and structure. The latter determines the question of an individual self-knowledge rationality. In ethical philosophy, self-knowledge is considered as meaningful activity of an individual's inner world with definite
goals, determined by a system of values. In domestic philosophy, this involves a direct appeal to the moral and ethical doctrines of Christian and Socratic philosophy.
The contemplation of love problem in modern philosophy is also closely connected with the receptions of the Christian philosophical tradition, both in its rather old and new versions. A scholar of authority from the University of St. Louis E. Stump in his work "Love, by All Accounts" ponders over three general approaches to determining the nature of love: reactive love, strong-willed love and kindred love [33]. According to E. Stump, each of these approaches to determining the nature of love has its drawbacks. So, reactive love (i.e., love arising in response) suggests that the features characteristic to the object of love may also be found in other individuals, which undermines his/her indispensability for a loving subject. This definition assumes as well that love can change when the characteristics inherent in the object of love, causing this feeling, change. In the case of the willful nature of love, the will to love can be equally applied to any object, regardless of the nature of the motive, positive or negative. Finally, kindred love is associated with the value of third motives - relationships, history, established relations, etc. E. Stump turns to the Thomistic, two-part approach to love, according to which true love should have two attributes: the desire for objective good to the object of love and the desire for unity with the beloved. However, the definition of Thomas Aquinas has some weak points. The idea of the good for the beloved person may be subjective; the lover does not always know what is objective. This may mean that the individual, thinking that he loves someone, actually does not have this feeling, which is a paradox. Thomas Aquinas also insufficiently outlines understanding of unity; the problem is the existence of forms of love unions that are unacceptable from a moral and ethical point of view. At the same time, the Thomistic understanding of self-love means a desire for a true good. One way or another, the basis for understanding love is the desire for the good of another. In a broader sense, E. Stump's constructions are connected with the theme of theodicy and with the problem of the joint existence of divine love and evil in this world [34].
Q.Liu examines the «Paradox of Christian Love» [29]. This philosopher is trying to find a conflict, a contradiction between the fundamental position of Christian ethics about love for God and for others. According to Q.Liu, the paradox is that accepting loving God as the ultimate foundation of love for one's neighbor and love for one's neighbor as the perfect manifestation of loving God means the superiority of loving God over one's neighbor. The result is the fact that in the event of a conflict between these principles, Christian ethics must necessarily sacrifice love for neighbor in favor of love for God, and, therefore, the second fundamental provision in favor of the first.
The works actualizing the doctrine of love by S. Kierkegaard are also indirect reference to the Christian concept of love. S. Krishek in his work "T wo forms of Love" examines the issue of preferential love in "Works of love" by Norwegian thinker [28]. As you know, Kierkegaard considered love for others as love for one's Self as a duty, which is the only true form of true love. Love, which S. Kierkegaard defined as "preferential" -romantic love, friendship, is a contrast to love for others and it is considered as a form of self-love. S. Krishek tries to reveal the inconsistency of Kierkegaard's position regarding preferential love, demonstrating that, as Kierkegaard himself partially admitted, in some cases preferential love goes beyond the individual's love for him-/ herself. To resolve such conflicts in the concept, S. Krishek offers an excellent understanding of true love as a basis for all types of love, including preferential love. According to the author, true love can be based not on the thesis of self-denial (Kierkegaard), but on the thesis of self-assertion, and both of these theses can be connected by paradoxical unity. Preferential love and love for others turn out to be connected in a single concept of true love ("kjerlighed" by Kierkegaard) and exist simultaneously.
The works of R. Furtak and J. Turnbull, who opposes him, are also devoted to the interpretation of Kierkegaard's "kjerlighed" concept. The general subject matter of R. Furtak's work "Wisdom in love: Kierkegaard and the ancient quest for emotional integrity" [26] is the "rehabilitation" of emotions in contrasting them with a rational, sensible foundation, which the author considers to be wrong. The author tries to demonstrate the rationality of love and the rationality of emotions associated with it. An appeal to Kierkegaard is used by the author to argue the incorrectness of the traditional for ancient, in particular, stoic philosophy, consideration of emotions as a value-erroneous category. R. Furtak debates that emotional perception is reasonable and subject to rational legitimation. Emotions "correspond to nothing less than the objective conditions of the Universe" [26, 92]. According to Kierkegaard, the necessary prerequisite for human existence and the significance of everything is love, and it is also the source of creation for everything, the original love, regarding which everything else is ontologically dependent, is God. Thus, when we see things with "loving eyes," they turn out to be significant, we value them for what they are, and we believe that there is something that gives importance to everything. At the same time, the logical consequence of love is suffering, because love makes an individual at risk of losing the object of love. Nevertheless, this does not call into question the fact that only love offers the opportunity for an individual to accept life and saves him/her from a sense of existential hopelessness. In contrast to R. Furtak, J. Turnbull, putting S. Kierkegaard's work in a historical context, tries to show that without taking into account the religious nature of Kierkegaard's concept of love, his adequate understanding is not possible [35].
Modern Ukrainian philosophy also appeals to earlier concepts of understanding love. In particular, T. Chernigova analyzes the role of love in the philosophy of life by M. Meterlink [18], and T. Dobko [5] scrutinizes the role of love and happiness in the philosophy of D. von Hildebrand. According to O. I. Gilevskaya, the revival of love culture tradition could become one of the tasks for modern philosophy [2]. The author's analysis of this concept etymology shows that the verbal ways of expressing it reflect the worldview features of a particular culture, as well as the ethnic, cultural and social traditions of native speakers of a certain language. In particular, the semantic field of the concept narrows, a tendency toward the manifestation of a utilitarian approach to its understanding and definition becomes noticeable in modern era. The concept of love is detached from the sublime condition of the soul and from the ideal sphere, being replaced by the designation of everyday processes. Love becomes a symbol of the unity of individuals not in the spiritual, but in the specifically physiological sense of the word.
The ontological nature of love is examined in the work of T. Kuchera "Ontological and moral-existential dimensions of love" [8]. The author defines love as "a creative principle in everything", which can be directed to a wide range of objects; the author mentions, in particular, a "human essence", an idea, another person, God, Motherland, nature [8, 75]. Nevertheless, love manifests itself in interpersonal relations in the most complete way and serves the task of overcoming interpersonal alienation. T. Kuchera considers changes in understanding of love by various philosophical schools and traditions, starting from antiquity, as evolution, focusing on the classification of love types by the Canadian social psychologist J. Lee. These types of psychological relations, in fact, (love-friendship, love-eros, love-obsession, etc.) are considered as ontologically equal; and such "richness of forms" of love - as a wide opportunity for self-realization of a person. The author is inclined to consider the romantic relationship between a man and a woman as the main type of love. The other types, where love is not so fully manifested, the author assigns conformity with such phenomena as patriotism (love for the motherland). Love, which does not imply interpersonal relationships, is defined as directed toward the object.
Remarkably, according to the author, these types of love, including love for nature, love for the motherland and love for God, "do not require and do not imply" reciprocity.
Another work devoted to the ontological nature of love is the article by L. Shigimagina "Space-time continuum of love" [20]. In this case, the basis of the author's concept is the thesis that an individual's life is considered as a series of repeated existential events in which everybody makes his choice. Choosing his future in this way, an individual builds himself as a person. Love here is a characteristic of the direction of this chain of events. In human perception, love is manifested through the individual's feeling of time intensity ("mental time of the individual"). Ultimately, the author hypothesizes the existence of the law of spiritual energy conservation and transformation, which is responsible for the spiritual self-realization of an individual through love.
L. N. Shadrina in her work "Spiritual love as an ontoepistemological principle," makes an attempt to determine the metaphysical status of love [19]. The author focuses on the concept of spiritual love, which she defines as a metaphysical act that takes a person beyond the limits of his/her subjectivity, and, at the same time, an interpersonal act aimed at another person and revealing itself in a spiritual side of being. The significance of this phenomenon is in the individual finding an internal objectivity that is inaccessible to the human mind - spiritual love is responsible for an individual's ability to participate in the world as in "being with others". The author proposes the concept of "zero point of love" - a conditional point of subjectivity, in which "thinking and knowing private ego falls into its own beginning, which is not thought through and connected with the understanding private ego" [19, 29]. At this point, an individual, according to the author, acquires his/her personal beginning, obtaining earthly individuality. At the zero point of love, a person receives a priori knowledge of the world, and his/her thinking is freed from sensory perceptions. In general, the combination of the epistemological and ontological aspects of philosophizing in the concept of love gives philosophy the opportunity to achieve the "last signified" - God-Love [19, 30].
Receptions of the idea and philosophical concept of love in modern Ukrainian and Russian philosophy occur by updating the relevant doctrines of the prominent representatives of the Cappadocian School of Patristics (O. V. Pavenkov [11]), G. S. Skovoroda (V. V. Golomonzina [3]), Plato (Z. Khamsa [16]), M. Yu. Udaltsov [14]), V. S. Solovyov (N. A. Kiselev [7]), P. D. Yurkevich (L. I. Sorochik [13] ), N. A. Berdyaev and V. V. Rozanov (E. A. Lebedev [9]), Pitirim Sorokin (I. E. Fadeev [15]), representatives of Western philosophical thought of the twentieth century (O. V. Pavenkov [10]).
3. Results and conclusions
Thus, we can observe two main approaches to the problem of self-knowledge in modern philosophy. In analytical philosophy, usually with receptions to the philosophy of the New Age, an epistemological approach prevails; the concept of self-knowledge is close to the problem of consciousness, its nature and structure. The latter determines the question of human self-knowledge rationality. In ethical philosophy, self-knowledge is considered as a meaningful activity of the individual's inner world with certain goals determined by the system of values. The consideration of love problem in modern philosophy is more closely connected with the receptions of the Christian philosophical tradition, both in its rather old and new versions.
Despite the bias towards the receptions of the Christian philosophical tradition, love is broadly regarded as a special quality of social relations, which also acts as a regulator in the process of self-knowledge, thus linking the problem of love and self-knowledge, and including them into the field of sociological issues. The analysis of modern understanding of love and self-knowledge concepts, as life-meaning values, as existing orientations in
the mind of every person, aimed at filling life with unique content, leads to the realization that a person is capable of self-improvement, self-realization, self-change and shows the relationship of concepts. Examination of the conceptual field of "love" and "self-knowledge" terms allows us to argue that their relationship determines a certain condition, life-meaning self-determination, attitude to the world and to ourselves.
A study of the ontological foundations of the relationship between self-knowledge and love is relevant socially. Without the relationship of self-knowledge and love, it seems that subsequent self-awareness leads to the tragedy of human existence in society. Therefore, it seems to us that it is necessary to find a new perspective of love and self-knowledge and their relationship issues investigation, as well as the selection of material concerning the problems of love and self-knowledge, which requires further theoretical and methodological deliberation.
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