CC BY
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Воробьёва О.С.
Кандидат филологических наук, доцент, Донецкий национальный университет ДЕРИВАЦИЯ В СИСТЕМЕ АНГЛИЙСКИХ ФРАЗОВЫХ ГЛАГОЛОВ
Аннотация
Статья посвящена анализу деривационных процессов в системе английских фразовых глаголов Исследование проводилось на материале одной из наиболее продуктивных пар фразовых глаголов, а именно, глаголов с постпозитивными компонентами on и off, с целью выявления в их деривационных системах изоморфных и алломорфных признаков.
Ключевые слова: фразовый глагол, постпозитивный компонент, деривация (словообразовательная и семантическая), мотивация (эксплицитная и имплицитная).
Vorob'jova O.S.
PhD in Linguistics, associate professor, Donetsk National University DERIVATION WITHIN ENGLISH PHRASAL VERBS
Abstract
The article focuses on the analysis of derivational processes within English phrasal verbs. The research is carried out on the basis of one of the most productive oppositions in the system of phrasal verbs, namely verbs with postpositive components on and off, the primary aim of the study being to single out their isomorphic and allomorphic derivational features.
Keywords: phrasal verb, postpositive component/postpositive, derivation (word-forming and semantic), motivation (explicit and implicit).
1. Theoretical outline. One of the ways of enlarging and enriching verbal lexicon of most languages, including English, is word formation. The distinguishing feature of the English verbal word formation is the functioning of such complex lexemes as to turn on, to turn off which consist of a monolexemic verb and a postpositive component of adverbial and prepositional nature.
The term “postpositive component” or “postpositive” (Amosova 1963), which is synonymous to terms like “adverbial postposition” (Anichkov 1947), “prepositional adverb” (Berlizon 1954), “postpositive prefix” (Zhluktenko 1954), etc., constitutes a post-verbal component that forms with a verb a relatively stable semantic and syntactic combination owing to the weakening of its adverbial or prepositional function.
Regarding the terminological ambiguity of second components inherent in these verbal combinations, more generally known as “phrasal verbs”, linguists have not yet reached the common view on the nature of the second component as well as the categorical status of the combination on the whole.
Some scholars look upon second components as notional words, namely adverbs or prepositions (Berlizon 1954; Kruisinga 1931; Marchand 1967 and others), defining the status of verbal complexes as verbal-adverbial or verbal-prepositional combinations. Others keep to the point that postpositive component is a word-building element, which either modifies or utterly changes the meаning of the basic verb, and refer the whole verbal complex to the class of analytical verbs (Kerlin 1959; Kuznets 1959 and others).
Notwithstanding different views as for the definition of the postpositive component, most scientists, who dwell on this problem, still agree that in the English language second component of the complex lexemes under analysis is used as the principal means of inner verbal word formation in contrast to other Indo-European languages, which resort to prefixation in such cases. Postpositive components in Modern English perform largely the same functions as prefixes in Russian and Ukrainian and separable prefixes in German.
Phrasal verbs or verbs with postpositive components are regarded in the current research as derivative lexical units formed from corresponding basic verbs with the help of postpositive components/postpositives. In this connection, one of the most important aspects of studying derivational peculiarities of these complex lexemes is to identify and analyze types of semantic correlation between phrasal verbs and their basic verbs. Due to this, in the present paper verbs with postpositive components are studied together with their basic verbs (BVs).
This article is devoted to the comparative analysis of derivational peculiarities of phrasal verbs with postpositive components on and off (PhV-on and PhV-off), that is lexemes like to go on, to go off. The choice of phrasal verbs with these very postpositives as an object of this study can be accounted for by the fact that these verbal complexes are remarkable for their original semantic opposition, well-developed semantic structure, high productivity and wide use in speech.
The material of the study runs to 1112 PhV-on and PhV-of (404 PhV-on and 708 PhV-of) and 342 basic verbs. This corpus is received by means of continuous sampling from the dictionaries of Modern English (Collins Cobuild Dictionary of Phrasal Verbs, Dictionary of Slang and Unconventional English, Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, Oxford Dictionary of Phrasal Verbs, etc.) aw well as from the catalogue of text examples (1500 sentences with PhV-on and 1500 sentences with PhV-of?) loaded from British National Corpus.
The primary aim of the research is to provide a closer insight into the derivation within the system of the above mentioned phrasal verbs, namely to single out, illustrate and compare its means.
2. Derivation within phrasal verbs with postpositives on and off. Derivational processes within English phrasal verbs, namely phrasal verbs with postpositive components on and off (PhV-on and PhV-of) are manifested through:
1) the formation of PhV-on and PhV-off from corresponding monolexemic basic verbs with the help of postpositive components on and off (word-forming derivation);
2) the development of the semantic structure of PhV-on and PhV-off themselves (semantic derivation).
The next table gives general vision of derivational processes which occur within PhV-on and PhV-off systems.
Table 2.1. Types of Derivation within PhV-on and PhV-of
№ Type of Derivation The number of PhV-on The number of PhV-off
1. Word-forming Derivation (certain changes in the semantics of BVs at the formation of PhV-on and PhV-off 395 (97,8%) 610 (86,2%)
2. Semantic Derivation (certain changes within already existing meanings of PhV-on/of at the formation of their new meanings) 9 (2,2%) 98 (13,8%)
Total 404 (100%) 708 (100%)
2.1. Word-forming derivation within PhV-on and PhV-off. The following table casts light on the means of word-forming derivation within PhV-on and PhV-off, provides their descriptions and quantitative characteristics.
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Table 2.2. Means of Word-forming Derivation within PhV-on and PhV-of
№ Means of Word-forming Derivation PhV-on PhV-of
Example Number Example Number
1. The Presence of Wordforming Derivation (partial or full change of the meanings of BVs at the formation of PhV-on/of from them) 384 (97,2%) 534 (87,5%)
1.1. The Presence of Semantic Connection (the possibility to derive the meanings of PhV-on/of from the meanings of their BVs) 277 (70,1%) 414 (67,8%)
1.1.1. Explicit motivation (full reproduction of the meanings of BVs in the PhV-on/offs semantics) to ride on ‘to continue riding (i.e. ‘travelling along, controlling and sitting on (a horse or other animal, a bicycle, or a motorcycle)’)’ ^ to ride ‘to travel along, controlling and sitting on (a horse or other animal, a bicycle, or a motorcycle)’ 70 (17,7%) to hack off ‘to remove by hacking (i.e. cutting with a knife or smth. sharp, in a rough and careless way)’ ^ to hack ‘to cut with a knife or smth. sharp, in a rough and careless way)’ 169 (27,7%)
1.1.2. Implicit motivation 207 (52,4%) 245 (40,1%)
1.1.2.1. the possibility to re-interpret the meanings of PhV-on/off and their BVs to bank on ‘to rely on smb./smth. (to have confidence in)’ ^ to bank ‘to keep money (in a bank)’ (if one keeps money in a bank, they rely on this service (i.e. have confidence in it)) 171 (43,3%) to pack off ‘to send smb. to a place, usu. without asking if they want to go, and without allowing them to refuse’ ^ to pack ‘to put (things, esp. one’s belongings) into cases, boxes, etc., usu. for taking somewhere’ (quite often one sends another one with the things packed) 181 (29,6%)
1.1.2.2. the presence of a common seme or semes in the semantics of PhV-on/off and their BVs to hop on ‘to throw smth. (i.e. to cause smth. to move, usu. forward)’ ^ to hop ‘to jump (i.e. to move oneself into the air or away from the surface by the force of one’s legs)’ 36 (9,1%) to skip off ‘to leave (i.e. to move away from) a place suddenly, esp. when you should not’ ^ to skip ‘ to move in a light dancing way, with quick steps and jumps’ 64 (10,5%)
1.2. The Absence of Semantic Connection (no possibility to derive the meanings of PhV-on/off from the meanings of their BVs; phrasal verbs tend to be regarded regarded as phraseological units to round on ‘to criticize, usu. sharply’ ^ to round ‘to make smth. round’ (the meaning of PhV-on and its BV are not sematically related, they belong to different semantic classes of verbs) 107 (27,1%) to blow off" to cancel (an event)’ ^ to blow ‘to send out a strong current of air’(the meaning of PhV-on and its BV are not sematically related, they belong to different semantic classes of verbs) 120 (19,7%)
2. The Absence of Wordforming Derivation (the meanings of PhV-on/of and their BVs are identical) to cheer on ‘to express approval or support, to encourage’ ^ to cheer to express approval or support, to encourage’ 11 (2,8 %) to auction off ‘to sell smth. at an auction’ ^ to auction ‘to sell smth. at an auction’ 76 (12,5%)
Total 395 (100%) 610 (100%)
It is clearly seen from the table above that the presence of word-forming derivation within PhV-on and PhV-of is represented by semantic correlations between basic verbs and phrasal verbs derived from them. The research that has been carried out enables to observe two distinct types of such correlations among which are 1) the presence of semantic connection between a phrasal verb and its basic verb which is expressed by two types of motivation (explicit and implicit) typical of PhV-on/PhV-of and 2) the absence of semantic connection
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between these two verbs which shows that PhV-on/PhV-of can be non-motivated by the meanings of their basic verbs and postpositives on and off and generally tend to be regarded as phraseological units (see also 1-1.2 in Table 2.2.).
Special attention here should be laid on the fact that within the corpus of PhV-on/PhV-of one can come across examples in which the meaning of a PhV-on/PhV-of doesn’t differ from the meaning of its BV, which demonstrates, on its turn, the absence of word-forming derivation (see also 2. in Table 2.2.). It happens when postpositives on/off endure full desemantization and turn into the indicators of quantitative characteristic of an action (emphatic particle which intensifies the meaning of the basic verb).
2.2. Semantic derivation within PhV-on and PhV-of The development of semantics of PhV-on/PhV-of can occur not only from the meanings of the corresponding basic verbs, but also within the semantic structure of PhV-on/PhV-off themselves by means of metaphorization, narrowing, widening and modification of the already existing meanings of PhV-on/PhV-of by additional semes (semantic derivation).
The table below illustrates the above mentioned means of semantic derivation and provides their quantitative data.
Table 2.3. Means of Semantic Derivation within PhV-on and PhV-of
№ Means of Semantic Derivation PhV-on PhV-of
Example Number Example Number
1. metaphorization of the direct meaning of PhV-on/off to go on ‘to make progress, to be successful’ ^ to go on ‘to move forward’ ^ to go ‘to move or travel’ 4 (44,4%) to throw off ‘to get rid of smth. unpleasant’ ^ throw off ‘to remove (a piece of clothing) quickly and carelessly’ ^ to throw ‘to cause smth. to move rapidly through the air’ 76 (77,6%)
2. narrowing of the already existing meaning of PhV-on/off to add on (2) ‘to add another part to a house, garden, etc.’^ to add on (1)‘to put together with smth. else so as to increase the number, size, importance, etc.’ ^ to add = to add on (in its first meaning(1)) 5 (55,6%) to send off (2) ‘to force (the player) to leave the field because he has broken the rules’ ^ to send off (1) ‘to cause to go or be taken to a place’^ to send = to send off (in its first meaning (1)) 7 (7,1%)
3. widening of the already existing meaning of PhV-on/off — to shave off ‘to reduce smth. by a small amount’ ^ to shave off ‘to remove hair from the skin completely by shaving’ ^ to shave ‘to cut off (a beard or face hair) close to the skin’ 4 (4,1%)
4. modification of the already existing meaning of PhV-on/of by additional semes — to get off ‘to cause smb. to stop taking medicine, drugs’ ^ to get off ‘to stop taking medicine, drugs’ ^ to get ‘to begin to have’ 11 (11,2%)
Всього 9 (100%) 98 (100%)
3. Isomophic and allomorphic derivational features within phrasal verbs with postpositives on and off. Common (isomorphic) derivational features of PhV-on and PhV-of arel) the formation of these verbal derivatives by means of word-forming derivation (PhV-on/off are formed from basic verbs by means of postpositives on/off) and semantic derivation (the meanings of PhV-on/of are developed from the meanings of PhV-on/off which already exist in the direction of their metaphorization, narrowing, widening or modification by additional semes) and 2) the presence of 3 following types of system-defined relations between PhV-on/of and their basic verbs: the relations of derivation (the meanings of PhV-on/of are either explicitly or implicitly motivated by the meanings of their basic verbs); the relations of idiomatic character (the meanings of PhV-on/off are not motivated by the meanings of their basic verbs and can be, therefore, regarded as set expressions with figurative meanings); the relations of equivalence (the meanings of the basic verbs and PhV-on/of are identical, postpositives on/off are completely deprived of their lexical meanings and perform the function of the intensifying particle, modifying the meaning of the basic verb). The most productive for both PhV-on and PhV-off appear to be the relations of derivation that can be accounted for by the original derivative nature of these lexical units.
Distinguishing (allomorphic) within the derivational systems of the phrasal verbs under study are 1) the fact that different word-forming models are productive for PhV-on and PhV-of (e.g. the most productive, typical of PhV-of exclusively, is the model “BV of movement + PC-off with the meaning of ‘away from (the place)’ ^ PhV-of with the meaning of ‘to leave a place in the way expressed by the BV’” while for PhV-on the most typical is the model “BV of movement / social activity of a person + PC-on with the meaning of ‘continuation of the action’^ PhV-on with the meaning of ‘the continuation of the action, expressed by the BV’”) and 2) more productive in quantitative as well as qualitative relations semantic derivation within PhV-off (the possibility of semantic derivation within PhV-on is confined only to metaphorization and narrowing of the already existing meanings of PhV-on, see also Table 2.3.).
References
1. Amosova N.N. Osnovy anglijskoj frazeologii. - L.: Izd-vo LGU, 1963. - 208 s.
2. Anichkov I.E. Angijskie adverbial'nye poslelogi: Dis. dokt. filol. nauk. - M., 1947 - 536 s.
3. Berlizon S.B. Glagol'no-narechnye sochetanija i ih rol' v obogashhenii slovarnogo sostava sovremennogo anglijskogo jazyka: Dis. kand. filol. nauk. - M, 1954. - 432 s.
4. Zhluktenko Ju.A. O tak nazyvaemyh «slozhnyh glagolah» tipa stand up v sovremennom anglijskom jazyke // Voprosy jazykoznanija. - M., 1954. - № 5. - S. 105-113.
5. Kerlin A.A., Kuznec M.D. Sostavnye glagoly v sovremennom anglijskom jazyke. - L.: Uchpedgiz, 1959. - 129 s.
6. Kruisinga E.A. A Handbook of Present-day English - Part II. (English Accidence and Syntax ). - Groningen, 1931. - Vol. 2. - 479 p.
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7. Marchand H. On the Description of Compounds. - Word, 1967. - Vol. 23. - № 1-3. - P. 379-387.
Евстигнеева Л. В.
Магистрант, Российский Государственный Педагогический Университет имени А. И. Герцена СТРУКТУРООБРАЗУЮЩАЯ РОЛЬ ЯЗЫКОВОЙ ИГРЫ В ПОСТМОДЕРНИСТСКИХ ХУДОЖЕСТВЕННЫХ
ТЕКСТАХ
Аннотация
В статье рассматривается значимость языковой игры при создании и восприятии постмодернистских художественных текстах. Анализируется стратегия использования языковой игры как структурообразующего компонента постмодернистских художественных текстов.
Ключевые слова: игра, языковая игра, постмодернистский художественный текст, каламбур, «рифмующийся сленг».
Evstigneeva L. V.
Master's student, Herzen State Pedagogical University of Russia STRUCTURE-FORMING ROLE OF SPEECH PLAY IN POSTMODERN LITERARY TEXTS
Abstract
The article considers the role of speech play in creating and perceiving postmodern literary texts. The strategy of using speech play as a structure-forming component of postmodern literary texts is analyzed.
Keywords: play, speech play, postmodern literary text, pun, “cockney rhyming slang”.
Игровой аспект постмодернистского художественного текста не раз привлекал внимание литературоведов и лингвистов. «Общепризнанным можно считать факт исключительной важности игры при создании и восприятии художественного текста, особенно если художественный текст принадлежит к так называемой постмодернистской парадигме» [Чемодурова, 2013: 368]. Языковая игра является одним из важнейших проявлений игровой деятельности: «Возрастающий интерес лингвистов к игре выражается в появлении ряда лингвистических исследований, рассматривающих семантику игры и анализирующих одно из важнейших проявлений игровой деятельности - языковую игру» [Чемодурова, 2013: 9]. Задачей данной статьи является
рассмотрение игрового аспекта постмодернистских художественных текстов в целом и, прежде всего, языковой игры, которая в современных художественных текстах часто выполняет структурообразующую роль.
Термин "игра" может обозначать различные, иногда мало схожие между собой явления, которые изучаются в психологии, педагогике и даже в физиологии. Частным видом игры, проявляющейся в речевой деятельности, является языковая игра [Дедушкина, 2012: 88]. Понятие языковой игры было введено австрийским философом Л. Витгенштейном. Он называл языковой игрой любой вид деятельности, связанный с языком; в его толковании языковая игра представляет собой "...целое, состоящее из языка и тех видов деятельности, с которыми он сплетен" [Витгенштейн, 1985: 79]. Термин "языковая игра" в современной науке получил неоднозначное, двоякое толкование: «первое - широкое, философское, а второе - узкое, лингвистическое (языковая игра рассматривается в данном случае как особый вид речевой деятельности, связанный с осознанным нарушением норм)» [Дедушкина, 2012: 88]. Явление языковой игры стало предметом пристального внимания лингвистов только в конце ХХ века, что, очевидно, было связано с тем, что языковая игра вышла за рамки художественной литературы и разговорной речи и стала широко распространена в рекламе, СМИ, языке политиков и юристов; это, в свою очередь, связано с процессами демократизации общества, что не могло не отразиться и на языке [Дедушкина, 2012: 88].
Языковая игра многофункциональна, а самой важной функцией языковой игры, по мнению большинства исследователей, является, несомненно, комическая функция [Дедушкина, 2012: 88].
Интерес к речевому поведению игрового характера формировался вместе с развитием теорий речевой деятельности и языковой (коммуникативной) компетенции. Юморология на всех этапах ее развития изначально уделяла большое внимание языку, что естественно, так как «юмористическое поведение» по большей части вербально; по этой же причине юморология постоянно обращалась к лингвистике, заимствовала ее концепты и методы анализа, хотя не использовала их в полном объеме. С середины ХХ в. юморологические теории обнаруживают явную и устойчивую тенденцию к лингвоцентризму; «это проявляется в их ориентации на лингвистическую «технику» юмора («humorwork») и в радикальном обновлении его метаязыка» [Каргаполова, 2007: 51].
Несомненно, языковая игра активно используется в работах постмодернистских авторов - сама постмодернистская поэтика требует обязательного использования разнообразных видов и приемов языковой игры в произведении. Игра выступает, по сути, основополагающим приемом литературы постмодернизма: «Идея «Homo ludens» («Человек играющий») Й. Хейзинги и теория «языковых игр» Л. Витгенштейна нашли здесь широкое применение: каламбуры, аллюзии, иноязычные вкрапления, неологизмы, графические изображения, нарушение орфографии и пунктуации» [Федосова, 2010: 24]. Языковая игра стала «квинтэссенцией литературного творчества постмодернистов», а игры разума все чаще стали использоваться современными писателями; ирония и пародия (как следствие игры) характерны для постмодернистов, которые с усмешкой относятся к серьезным вещам [Федосова, 2010: 24].
Образцом использования языковой игры в постмодернистском художественном тексте является рассказ Анджелы Картер, выдающейся британской писательницы второй половины XX века, “A Victorian Fable (with Glossary)”. Сам рассказ представляет собой полностью закодированный текст, понять смысл которого читателю помогает викторианский сленг, вынесенный автором в глоссарий.
Не обращаясь к глоссарию, понять смысл происходящего с самого начала повествования практически невозможно: “Here the sloops of war and the dollymops flash it to spie a dowry ofparny; there the bonneters cooled their longs and shorts in the hazard drums ". В глоссарии автор даёт следующие значения слов, представленных в данном отрывке: “sloop of war, a - whore (rhyming slang) ", “dollymop, a - a tawdrily dressed maid-servant, a streetwalker", “flash it, to - show it, to display one's wares ", “dowry ofparny, a - a lot o f rain ", “bonneter, a - one who induces another to gamble ", “cool, to - to look, to look over (back slang) ", “longs and shorts - cards made for cheating", “hazard drum, a - gambling dens, where the honest escape penniless, if at all". Посмотрев значения каждого слова в отдельности, читатель может составить их в единый смысл.
В рассказе очень активно используется так называемый «рифмующийся сленг», который впоследствии стал известен как “cockney rhyming slang” (выбор слов при его использовании в речи определяется по принципу рифмической сочетаемости). Этот сленг часто встречается в разговорной речи рабочего населения Лондона. Очевидно, что этот вид сленга построен на языковой игре: например, выражение “take a fright" будет обозначать слово “night", а использование “a sloop of war"- это способ передать смысл слова “whore". Использование этого сленга автором создает игровой эффект в рассказе, вовлекая читателей в увлекательный процесс разгадывания зашифрованного повествования. Помимо этого, использование «рифмующегося сленга» также способствует созданию комического эффекта.
Использование различных приемов языковой игры в рассказе становится структурообразующим принципом, поскольку небольшое (всего две страницы) повествование, полностью закодированное при помощи различных видов языковой игры, сопровождается значительно более пространным по объему глоссарием, имеющим псевдонаучный характер и способствующим дальнейшему вовлечению читателей в головокружительную игру по расшифровке сообщения.
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