CC BY
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УДК (8П.4П.21:8П.Ш:8ПЛ61Л)'36(045)
Malykh L. M.
Udmurt State University, Izhevsk, Russia Kzar Y. H. Post-graduate student of UdSU, Iraq
DEGREES OF COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES IN THE ENGLISH, ARABIC
AND RUSSIAN LANGUAGES
The aim of this paper is to define similarities and differences among English, Arabic and Russian comparative constructions, namely degrees of comparison of adjectives (DCA). After selecting DCA as the target language structure for research, the contrastive analysis of DCA was conducted in four steps. First, the system of DCA in each language was studied and a brief description was provided. Second, parameters for the contrastive analysis of DCA were defined. They are: the syntactic position of adjectives in a noun phrase, the role of the grammatical categories (number, gender and definiteness / indefiniteness) in forming DCA, the morphological system of DCA, the analytical system of DCA. Third, all DCA were compared according to each parameter. Fourth, the technique called «modeling the results of the contrastive analysis» was
applied. In the process of the contrastive analysis of DCA some universal characteristics of comparison of adjectives were found: all the three languages have three degrees of comparison (positive, comparative and superlative) realized through two systems - morphological and analytical, all of them correlate with the grammatical category of number in forming DCA. In a multilingual class English, being the easiest language from the point of view of the way comparative constructions are formed, should be studied first as it helps to positively transfer the knowledge of DCA into more complicated languages like Russian or Arabic. As Arabic has many more similarities with English than Russian as far as DCA goes, it should be introduced next with the Russian DCA crowning the process of their acquisition.
Key words: degrees of comparison of adjectives, a contrastive analysis, English, Arabic, Russian, parameters of comparison, multilingual education.
Малых Л. М.
Удмуртский государственный университет, Ижевск, Россия
Кзар У. Х. магистрант УдГУ, Ирак
СТЕПЕНИ СРАВНЕНИЯ ПРИЛАГАТЕЛЬНЫХ В АРАБСКОМ, АНГЛИЙСКОМ И РУССКОМ ЯЗЫКАХ
Целью данной статьи является выявление сходств и различий в сравнительных конструкциях, точнее, в степенях сравнения прилагательных (ССП) в английском, арабском и русском языках. Контрастивный анализ СПП проходил в четыре этапа. На первом этапе было осуществлено параллельное описание СПП в изучаемых языках. На втором этапе были определены параметры сравнения СПП. К ним относятся: синтаксическая позиция прилагательного по отношению к существительному в контексте предложения, роль грамматических категорий числа, рода, падежа, определенности - неопределенности в формировании СПП в изучаемых языках, морфологическая (синтетическая) система СПП, аналитическая система СПП. На четвертом этапе была применена методика моделирования результатов контрастивного анализа СПП. В процессе контрастивного анализа СПП был выявлен ряд универсальных черт образования СПП в исследуемых языках. В них СПП образуется с помощью двух параллельно существующих систем - морфологической и аналитической, прилагательные выражают три степени сравнения (положительную, сравнительную и превосходную), обязательно согласование прилагательного с существительным по грамматической категории числа. При изучении учащимися (студентами) всех трех языков одновременно следует начинать изучение этой грамматической темы с английского языка, так как он демонстрирует наиболее прозрачную систему формирования СПП, которая легко усваивается. Учитывая большое количество сходств между английскими и арабскими СПП, как показало данное исследование, арабскую систему СПП следует вводить после английской. Русские СПП завершают процесс изучения данной грамматической темы в мультилингвальной аудитории.
Ключевые слова: степени сравнения прилагательных, контрастивный анализ, английский язык, арабский язык, русский язык, параметры сравнения, мультилингвальное образование.
Introduction
The English, Arabic and Russian languages are among most studied languages of the world. More than that, there is a marked tendency to study these languages simultaneously [1, 2] in the process of what is now most often called «multilingual education». The aim of this paper is to define similarities and differences among English, Arabic and Russian comparative constructions,
namely degrees of comparison of adjectives. Comparative constructions have been addressed by various typological investigations (Greenberg 1966 [3], Ultan 1972 [4], Stassen 1985 [5], Beck 2004 [6], Kennedy 2007 [7], among others). This paper is an attempt to demonstrate the results of a contrastive language study of DCA.
1. The methodology of Research
A contrastive analysis, as it is proclaimed by most linguists, enables the researcher to investigate the role of similarities and differences among the languages in application to the process of teaching them. After selecting DCA as the target language structure for research, the contrastive analysis of DCA in the English, Arabic and Russian languages was conducted in four steps. First, the system of DCA in each language was studied and a brief description was provided. Second, common criteria, or tercium comparationis (TC), or, better, «parameters of cross-linguistic variation» (Chr. Kennedy 2005 [8, p.13]) for further contrastive analysis of DCA were defined. Third, all DCA were compared according to each parameter which brought us to discover a system of similarities and differences for each parameter. Fourth comes the summarizing step conducted with the help of the technique called «modeling the results of the contrastive analysis» for multilingual education purposes [9, 10]. Let us continue with our research by demonstrating the process of comparing and contrasting the three languages according to the four steps outlined above.
1.1. DCA in English
Collectively, adjectives form one of the traditional English eight parts of speech. An English adjective usually precedes the noun or the pronoun it modifies. Scholars distinguish two main categories of adjectives in connection with DCA in English: gradable adjectives and non-gradable adjectives. Most gradable adjectives are adjectives of quality: honest, kind, large, bulky, beautiful, ugly, etc. B. Warren points out that the gradability of an adjective is reflected in its ability to express comparison: cheap - cheaper - the cheapest, important - more important - the most important and its ability to be intensified by grading / intensifying adverbs that vary the adjective's grade or intensity: very cheap or attenuated not very important, less impressing, etc. [11].
Gradable adjectives in English are quite well studied by linguists. It is common knowledge that they have three degrees of comparison: positive, comparative and superlative. The basic degree is called positive because it is characterized by the absence of a marker. As for the comparative and superlative degrees, they have special morphological means of expression. Traditionally, two main types of gradable adjectives are distinguished in the English DCA from the point of view of their morphology: the so called morphological comparatives and analytical comparatives [12].
English Morphological System of Comparison. In morphological comparison the suffixes -er for comparatives and -est for superlatives are used. These inflections are of Germanic origin and are cognate with the Latin suffixes -ior and -issimus and Ancient Greek -o$n and -istos. They are typically added to shorter words, words of Anglo-Saxon origin, and borrowed words which have been fully assimilated into the English vocabulary. Usually the words which take these inflections have fewer than three syllables [12, p. 1].
English Analytical System of Comparison. This system of comparison in English appends the grammatical particles more and the most, themselves the irregular comparatives of many and much. This system is most commonly used with words of French or Latin derivation; with longer technical, or infrequently used words. Knowing which words fall into which system is a highly idiomatic issue in the English syntax. Some words, e.g. difficult, require more and the most. Some words, e.g. polite, can be used with either system, curiously, the derived word impolite requires more and the most [13]. The general rule is that words with one syllable require the suffixes while words with three or more syllables require more or the most, and words with two syllables can go either way.
1.2. DCA in Arabic
Modern Standard Arabic is the official language of 26 states and the liturgical language of Islam. The Arabic language is distinguished by its resilience and stability over more than 1,500 years. It may be the only language which has not undergone radical changes. An educated Arab today is able to read books from classical times and ancient manuscripts with relative ease in spite of the differences in letter forms [14].
Arabic is an inflectional language. As a result, an adjective in Arabic must agree with the noun in gender (masculine, feminine), number (singular, plural or dual), case and definiteness / indefiniteness [15]. Arabic adjectives come after the nouns they modify. It seems quite logical from the point of view of Arabic linguists because if you read a sentence or a noun phrase from right to left you can easily modify the adjective that comes after the noun according to the noun's gender, number, case and definiteness [16], e.g.: j*^ ¿w - Baitun (s.,m.,indef.1) sagheer (s.,m.,indef.) - a small house, literally: house small if you read it from right to left after the traditional manner of reading in Arabic. Overinflection is a typical feature of inflectional languages known as syntactic pleonasm. It means that more words in a given phrase than actually need it are inflected in order to express a single grammatical property [17].
Arabic Morphological System of Comparison
Linguists also distinguish two main types of DCA in Arabic: morphological and analytical. The morphological system of comparison is used when adjectives have four letters or less, e.g.: -kabeer (m.) - big; - jameela (f.) - beautiful, etc.
A very distinctive feature of Arabic is that traditionally Arabic comparative and superlative degrees of adjectives are made not of adjectives in their base form but of verbal nouns formed from the roots of adjectives. Linguists admit that these verbal nouns are very similar to English participles and just like participles in other languages they are easily substantivized [18, p. 131] and become nouns.
When forming a verbal noun for a comparative construction, it's important to know another peculiarity of the Arabic language. The Arabic language being inflectional is notable for a wide use of root inflection: Arabic roots consist of a few (usually three) consonants (so-called «radicals») and are generally inflected by various vowels occurring between them. Example: the Arabic radical k-t-b «write» serves as a root for the derivatives: kitab «book», kataba «he wrote», yaktubu «he writes», kattab «writer», maktab «office», etc.) [19, p. 1057].
Similarly, verbal nouns with four or less letters are formed with the help of root inflection. This is the most intricate part of Arabic DCA for non-native speakers and, unfortunately, it's quite poorly described in linguistic sources. Sites for practical study of Arabic can be of some help. One of the recipes for forming verbal nouns looks like this: first, extract the three consonants from an adjective: beautiful = jameel - jml, then spread the consonants respectively to the model a??a? by replacing each question mark with a consonant. You will have then a comparative adjective -ajmal or, to be more exact, a verbal noun. This rule is applicable to most adjectives: near = qareeb -qrb; nearer = aqrab; big = kabeer - kbr; bigger = akbar, etc. [20].
As for the superlative degree in the morphological system of DCA, the only difference with the comparative degree is that the identification of definiteness is added to the verbal noun - the same verbal noun which is used to form the comparative degree of an adjective. Linguists studying Arabic stress the fact that Arabic adjectives in the superlative must always have the definite article [18, p. 140]. As definiteness plays a very important role in forming DCA, the definite article in Arabic is given special attention to by both linguists and teachers of Arabic. The definite article in Arabic -J| il-, or al- is written as part of the word: -¿Jl- al walad - the boy; ¿¿Jl- al bent - the
1 s.- singular, m. - masculine, indef. - an indefinite article.
The examples that follow will be given in the Nominative case that's why the grammatical case won't be taken into consideration. Another reason for neglecting the grammar case in this paper is that from the point of view of the teaching process of inflectional languages the system of cases is supposed to be a well-studied grammar phenomenon before turning to the system of DCA.
girl; - al bait - the house, etc. [21]. There is no indefinite article in Arabic, such as an or a, so indefinite nouns are preceded by nothing.
In Modern Standard Arabic the gender and number of the verbal noun is irrelevant for the comparative and superlative adjectival constructions [22]: - al akbar (m.) - the biggest; J^Vl -al ajmal (f.) - the most beautiful, etc.
Arabic Analytical System of Comparison
The analytical system of comparison deals with long adjectives containing four or more letters. The following examples show the base form of masculine and feminine Arabic adjectives of four letters or more, e.g.: ^^ - khaef (m.) - afraid; ^^ - mutakadem (f.) - advanced, etc. Considering the fact that gender and number of the verbal noun is irrelevant to the comparative and superlative adjectival constructions, there's only one common rule: for masculine and feminine adjectives with four or more letters comparative adjectives are formed by using the separate word j&l- akthar - more followed by a verbal noun [23]: ^j^ J^' - akthar khoof - more afraid; -
akthar tkadum - more advanced, etc. As for the superlative forms, the identification of definiteness J!- al - the is added to the separate word akthar - more followed by a verbal noun: - al
akthar khoof - the most afraid; - al akthar tkadum - the most advanced, etc.
1.3. DCA in Russian
Like Arabic, Russian is an inflectional language, though its morphology has some peculiarities. In the Russian language an adjective always agrees in gender (masculine or feminine) and number (singular or plural) with the noun or pronoun it modifies.
Russian qualitative adjectives which are also gradable adjectives are quite well studied. They mean a quality or property of an object: its size (большой - big), shape (круглый - round), color (голубой - blue), physical properties (холодный - cold), as well an object's propensity to certain actions (болтливый - talkative) [24].
Adjectives normally directly precede the noun they modify. Just like gradable adjectives in English and Arabic, they have three degrees of comparison: positive, comparative and superlative. More than that, they are also characterized by two systems of comparison: morphological and analytical.
Russian Morphological System of Comparison
In this system comparatives are formed by adding one of the suffixes -е or -ее to the adjective base. The comparative suffix -ee is directly suffixed onto the base form of a gradable adjective like in English when -er is suffixed to the unmarked form of the adjective [25]. It's important to stress here that the comparative form of adjectives with the suffixes -e /-ee is neutral as to the gender and even number of the noun it modifies: сильный (s.,m.) - strong - сильнее (s./pl.,m./f.2) - stronger.
As for the superlative, it can be formed by adding the suffixes -ейш- or -айш- to the base of the adjective, e.g.: сильнейший спортсмен - the strongest sportsman; ближайший поезд - the nearest train. All superlative forms decline and agree in number, gender and case with the noun they qualify, e.g.: новейшие (pl., f.) суперсложные (pl.f.) технологии (pl.f.) - the newest super-complicated technologies.
Russian Analytical System of Comparison. This system may be used with practically any qualitative adjective. The comparative is formed by using the non-declinable words более - more or менее - less before the adjective. Although the words более - more and менее - less do not decline, the adjective that forms the second part of the comparative agrees with the noun it qualifies in number, gender and case, e.g.: e.g.: более интересная (s.,f.) лекция (s.,f.) - a more interesting lecture; менее уютный (s.,m.) дом (s.,m.) - a less cosy house, etc. Just like in Arabic, syntactic pleonasm is observed in these constructions and both the noun and the adjective are inflected.
2 S. - singular, pl. - plural, m. - masculine, f. - feminine.
2. The Results of the Contrastive Analysis of Degrees of Comparison in the English, Arabic and Russian languages
The description of DCA in each language is an important preliminary step of the contrastive analysis. The application of the next step which is directly linked with comparing and contrasting DCA in all the three languages requires a system of parameters of cross-linguistic variation. As the choice of parameters is quite an open-ended question as far as grammar goes, in this research we tried to focus on such parameters which are most important for learners of these languages. In our opinion, they are:
1) the syntactic position of adjectives in a noun phrase;
2) the role of the grammatical categories (number, gender and definiteness / indefiniteness) in forming DCA;
3) the morphological system of DCA;
4) the analytical system of DCA.
The results of this step can be summarized with the contrastive tables.
2.1. The Syntactic Position of Adjectives in the English, Arabic and Russian languages
According to this parameter, the English and Russian languages are similar because in both of them an adjective comes before the noun. Unlike them, in the Arabic language an adjective follows the noun.
Table 1 - Syntactic Position of an Adjective in a Noun Phrase
The Syntactic Position of Adjectives English Arabic Russian
+ - +
2.2. The Role of the Grammatical Categories of Number, Gender and Definiteness / Indefiniteness in Forming DCA
The grammatical categories of number, gender and definiteness / indefiniteness play different roles in each language when forming DCA. There is no complete similarity among the three languages in respect to this parameter. However, Arabic adjectives demonstrate all these categories. English adjectives have the categories of number and definiteness / indefiniteness. Russian adjectives have number and gender categories.
Table 2 - Grammatical Categories of Number, Gender and Definiteness / Indefiniteness
Grammatical English Arabic Russian
Categories
Number + + +
Gender - + +
Def./ Indef. + + -
2.3. The Morphological System of Comparison in the English, Arabic and Russian languages The English and Russian languages are somewhat identical in the way they form comparative degrees of adjectives by adding suffixes to the base of adjectives. However, in the Arabic language comparative adjectives are the result of the transformation of an adjective into a verbal noun with the help of root suppletion. As with the way of forming the superlative degree, English and Arabic are rather similar in adding the definite article to the superlative degrees of adjectives.
Table 3 - Morphological System of DCA
Morphological System English Arabic Russian
Comparative + - +
Superlative + + -
2.4. The Analytical System of Comparison in the English, Arabic and Russian languages There is an evident similarity between the English and Russian languages as far as comparative and superlative degrees of adjectives are concerned because in both of them separate words denoting a greater or additional amount or degree of something are used before adjectives. Though in Arabic such words are also used they are positioned before verbal nouns formed from adjectives.
Table 4 - Analytical System of DCA
The Analytical System English Arabic Russian
Comparative + - +
Superlative + - +
Now we've come to the stage where a summarizing contrastive table is necessary because it will provide the most valuable information about each language under study in relation to other languages. It is now useful to resort to a summarizing contrastive table, which can provide the most valuable information about each language under study in relation to other languages. To do so, we choose to apply a technique called «modeling the results of the contrastive analysis». This procedure is especially useful for multilingual education when all the three languages are studied simultaneously by the same group of students and the question of the priority of the language or language phenomenon for the introduction is very important. According to it three main models are deduced from the contrastive analysis of a language phenomenon. They represent different relations among languages under study: all the languages show similar features (L1 = L 2 = L 3); only two languages exhibit similarities, the other language is different from them (L1 = L 2 ^ L 3); all languages show unique features (L1 ^ L 2 ^ L 3). If several parameters of the contrastive analysis are introduced, the number of models increases. In the table that follows similarities and differences among English, Arabic and Russian DCA are summarized.
Table 5 - Summary of the Contrastive Analysis of DCA in the English, Arabic and Russian Languages
Parameters of cross-linguistic variation English (E) Arabic (A) Russian (R) Results
Syntactic position adj. + noun + - + E = R ^ A
noun + adj. - + -
Grammatical categories number + + + E = A = R
gender - + + A = R ^ E
def. / indef. + + - E = A ^ R
Morphological system comparative + - + E = R ^ A
superlative + + - E = A ^ R
Analytical system comparative + + - E = A ^ R
superlative + + - E = A ^ R
The results of the contrastive analysis of DCA in English, Arabic and Russian languages reveal that:
1. The English, Arabic and Russian languages have one universal feature when comparing objects: all of them show the grammatical category of number of nouns and adjectives compared.
2. The English and Russian languages are identical in the syntactic position of an adjective in relation to the noun: an adjective comes before the noun.
3. Arabic and Russian adjectives are identical in having the grammatical category of gender.
4. English adjectives are similar to Arabic adjectives in preserving the grammatical category of definiteness.
5. English and Russian are identical in the way they form comparative and superlative degrees of the morphological systems of comparison.
6. English and Arabic adjectives are identical in the way comparative and superlative degrees of the analytical systems of comparison are constructed.
7. There are some specific features each language reveals in connection with DCA. Unlike Russian and Arabic the English language has no gender distinctions which seems to be a positive factor from the point of view of a student because it facilitates the process of studying DCA in English. The Arabic language shows quite a few unique features hampering its acquisition. For Russian and English speaking students the position of an adjective in a noun phrase which comes after the noun is unusual. Another difficulty arises from the fact that in the comparative and superlative degrees a verbal noun is used instead of an adjective. As for the Russian language, it shows no definiteness / indefiniteness distinctions which may be treated as a positive factor simplifying the process of studying DCA. However, when comparing objects it is characterized by preserving the grammatical category of gender: masculine, feminine or neuter. It is a time consuming process to learn these distinctions and especially difficult for English speaking students if they have never confronted any inflectional language before.
Conclusion
In the process of the contrastive analysis of DCA in the English, Arabic and Russian languages some universal characteristics of comparison of adjectives were found: all the three languages have three degrees of comparison realized through two systems - morphological and analytical. Their ability to correlate with the grammatical category of number in DCA is also their common feature. These similarities are basic for a successful acquisition of DCA by students in the languages under study. If all the three languages are studied at one and the same time, English being the easiest language from the point of view of the way comparative constructions are formed should be studied first as it helps to positively transfer this knowledge into more complicated languages like Russian or Arabic. As Arabic has many more similarities with English than Russian as far as DCA goes, it should be introduced next with the Russian DCA crowning the process of their acquisition. These observations, however, require verification with learners of these languages.
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