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CROSS-POLARIZATION OPTICAL COHERENCE TOMOGRAPHY PROBES FOR INTRAOPERATIVE APPLICATION IN NEUROSURGERY
K.S. Yashin1, P.A. Shilyagin2*, E.B. Kiseleva2'3, G.G. Gelikonov2, V.N. Romashov2, A.A. Moiseev2, I.A. Medyanik1, S.Y. Ksenofontov2, K.A. Achkasova3, L.Y. Kravets1, N.D. Gladkova3
1 Privolzhsky Research Medical University, University Clinic, 18/1 Verchnevolzhskaya nab., Nizhny Novgorod' 603950, Russia;
2 Institute of Applied Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, 46 Ulyanova St., Nizhny Novgorod, 603950, Russia;
3 Privolzhsky Research Medical University, Institute of Experimental Oncology and Biomedical Technologies, 3 Med-itsinskaya St., Nizhny Novgorod, 603104, Russia.
* Corresponding author: [email protected]
Abstract. Optical coherence tomography (OCT) is one of the most promising, innovative and rapidly emerging intraoperative imaging modalities for neurosurgical guidance by brain tissue imaging, «optical biopsy», brain cerebral vascular detection, nerve fibers and white matter tracts detection. In this article, we provide a short survey of cross-polarization OCT and different types of OCT probes that can be used in routine neurosurgical practice. Through different types of probes there are multiple applications where OCT can play a highly complementary role in offering the real-time microscopic assessment and imaging of normal and pathological brain tissues. The biopsy-needle based probe for CP OCT was shown as an effective instrument for brain tissue mapping and express estimation of tissue status as well as for detecting large blood vessels to prevent causing bleeding during biopsy sampling. The folded CP OCT probe for intraoperative use for brain tissue examination was shown as a potentially efficient sensor head for CP OCT. The probe demonstrated high lateral resolution in diffractive limited probing beam quality. The length of the dismountable probe tip allows using the probe under operating microscope. The designed family of specialized probes allows CP OCT to occupy a niche of devices for express brain tissue examination in situ after finishing of the approvement for clinical use process.
Keywords: cross-polarization optical coherence tomography, cross-scattering, probes, brain tumors, stereotactic biopsy, neurosurgical guidance.
List of Abbreviations
OCT - optical coherence tomography CP OCT - cross-polarization optical coherence tomography
SD OCT - spectral-domain optical coherence tomography
IAP RAS - Institute of Applied Physics of the Russian Academy of Sciences
Introduction
Optical coherence tomography (OCT) is one of the most promising, innovative and rapidly emerging intraoperative imaging modalities for neurosurgical guidance by brain tissue imaging, «optical biopsy», brain cerebral vascular detection, nerve fibers and white matter tracts detection (Fan et al., 2018). OCT imaging has some advantages in the field of intraoperative technologies in neurosurgery: high-resolution, high-speed, low-cost, label free, non-invasive-ness, and convenience performance. Several
studies have shown that OCT can provide differentiation between tumorous and non-tumor-ous tissues through both qualitative (Bohringer et al., 2009; Yashin et al., 2019a) and quantitative assessment (Kut et al., 2015; Yashin et al., 2019b) of the OCT signal by building color-coded maps. Moreover, OCT seems to be an excellent method of myelin visualization, that can be realized using so-called OCT functional extensions - polarization-sensitive (PS) OCT and also polarization-sensitive optical coherence microscopy (Boas et al., 2017; Wang et al., 2016) and cross-polarization (CP) OCT (Yashin et al., 2019a). These OCT modalities provide contrast imaging of myelinated fibers due to their sensitivity to tissue birefringence. Thus, PS OCT allows visualizing white matter tracts in the brain.
There are several scenarios how OCT can be implemented in neurosurgery: (1) OCT can be used intraoperatively for brain imaging and
provide real-time feedback to the surgeons, e.g. clarifying the boundaries of the infiltrative brain tumors within surrounding tissues; (2) OCT can be used for emergency biopsy by neuropathologist; (3) OCT can aid in stereotactic procedures for verifying target for deep brain stimulation or guiding biopsy overcoming challenges both with requirement of multiple sampling and hemorrhagic complications.
According to this possible implementations following OCT scanner designs have been offered: (1) hand-held imaging probes (Garzon-Muvdi et al., 2017; Yashin et al., 2019a), surgical instrumentation (e.g. biopsy needle) (Liang et al., 2011; Pichette et al., 2015; Ramakonar et al., 2018), microscope-integrated systems (Bohringer et al., 2009; Finke et al., 2012; Lankenau et al. , 2007) and nonportable stationary OCT systems (Bizheva et al., 2007; Yashin et al., 2019b). However, considering multifunc-tionality of OCT in neurosurgery the multipurpose device with particular set of OCT probes can be preferred. Moreover, all of using probes need to be driven for optimal surgical ergonomics and compliance with current neurosurgical protocols and other surgical devices in operating room.
This article is devoted to the description of the features of the use of CP OCT devices developed at the IAP RAS in the period 20092020 for intraoperative use in surgery for brain tumor pathologies. The material includes a brief overview of the CP OCT technology and systems used to register the CP OCT signal, as well as a description of the main types of scanning units that perform probing of target tissues and organs.
Cross-polarization OCT is a variant of polarization-sensitive OCT
Intensity-based OCT has demonstrated significant results in detecting pathological changes in tissues with layered structure, such as those in the eye. In case of structureless tissue types (brain, breast) the advanced contrast OCT imaging can be achieved by using PS OCT (Baumann, 2017). This technique can detect a number of characteristics of the matter caused by optical anisotropy of its constituent
elements, that provides the possibility to generate tissue-specific contrast (Baumann, 2017; de Boer et al., 2017) in OCT images. Based on the polarization anisotropy of the tissue structure, PS OCT provides better visualization of elongated structures and therefore offers advanced imaging of myelinated fibers in peripheral nerves and the brain (Wang et al., 2016). CP OCT has been shown as a simplified variant of PS OCT providing not only conventional OCT imaging but also allowing visualization of those locations in object where the initial polarization state of the probing light alters into orthogonal state due to birefringence or/and cross-scattering in biological tissues (Gubarkova et al., 2016). This OCT modality enables recording two co-registered images common scattering (conventional OCT image or so-called image in co-polarization) and anisotropic (image in cross-polarization) that detects tissue backscat-tering producing polarization state orthogonal to the incident one. The last is obtained through the use of the orthogonally polarized backscat-tered light, which is mutually coherent with the incident one, what contributes to the cross-polarized OCT image. The origin of such "coherent backscattering" includes random polarization during light propagation in the media, depolarization during the backscattering process, and "regular" polarization changes associated with propagation back and forth in birefringent media (Schmitt & Xiang, 1998).
Cross-polarization OCT devices were used
Since 2002 several generations of CP OCT devices with cross-polarization detection were developed in the Institute of Applied Physics of the Russian Academy of Sciences (Nizhny Novgorod, Russia) and produced for custom use by Biomedtech LLC (Nizhny Novgorod, Russia) (Gelikonov et al., 2009; Moiseev et al., 2013), as listed in Table 1 and shown in Figure 1 a, b.
The early studies were performed with the time-domain (TD) CP OCT device «OCT-1300U» (1310 nm wavelength, 200 A-scans per second line rate). The device belongs to a family of endoscope compatible systems, which
Table 1
Cross-polarization OCT devices
Time-domain OCT-1300U Spectral-domain CP OCT system
Technical
Wavelength Spectrum width Scanning rate 1310 nm 100 nm 200 A-scans/s 1310 nm 120 nm 20,000 A-scan/s
Probing beam polarization state random circular
Acquisition time 2 sec (2D) 0.05 sec (2D), 26 sec (3D for multimodal)
Image modalities
2D 3D OCT angiography OCT elastography yes no no no yes yes yes yes
OCT image analysis qualitative quantitative yes only for co-channel, 1 optical coefficient yes for co- and cross- channels, several optical coefficients
Approval for clinical use since 2005 in progress
was approved for clinical use (product license № FCP 2012/13479 from 30 May 2012). It is characterized by number of features that are sufficient for solving the majority of endoscopic tasks, e.g. express estimation of tissue state in small areas. However, the imaging rate and scanning protocol (only the 2D scanning is rational to be used due to low line rate) are out of modern requirements and cannot accomplish the tasks like angiography, elastography, or tissue structure orientation imaging (Moiseev et al., 2019; Sirotkina et al., 2016). The CP OCT image includes both images: (1) cross-polarization (upper part); (2) co-polarization (lower part), as shown in Figure 1 c6.
The spectral-domain (SD) OCT engine for CP OCT imaging was developed in IAP RAS preserving optical characteristics of probing light (central wavelength 1300 nm, output power 5-15 mW). The probing beam bandwidth is little higher than in previously used TD CP OCT device, which causes the lateral resolution of 15 um in air. The device was designed to provide 20 000 A-scan/s line rate using linear photodiode array SU-512LDB-1.7T1 (Goodrich), 1200 lpmm diffractive
grating T-1200-1310 (LightSmyth) and double prism corrector made from custom crafted elements (Nanyang Jingliang optical technology corp, China). This allowed to avoiding any polarization anisotropy in the spectrometer. To realize uniform optimal conditions for cross-polarization studies of biological tissue the device was equipped with system of active maintenance of the circular polarization of a probing wave in common path OCT setup (Gelikonov et al., 2018). The resulting CP OCT image also includes both co-and cross-images but in reverse order to the ones in TD OCT: (1) co-polarization (upper part); (2) cross-polarization (lower part), as demonstrated in Figure 1c3. The image acquisition can be performed in contact or contactless mode (probe dependent).
Cross-polarization OCT image analysis
Numbers of studies demonstrate that OCT images assessment can be performed through three main approaches: (1) qualitative (visual); (2) quantitative using optical coefficients calculation and (3) combined based on building color-coded maps.
<c> (d)
Fig. 1. Different CP OCT devices with compatible probes (a, b) are presented with corresponding types of the CP OCT images in co-polarization and cross-polarization (c3), (c6) and optical coefficient color-coded map (d3). (c3), (d3) CP OCT images demonstrate clear signal differences between tumor and white matter (WM), yellow and black dotted rectangles indicate infiltration zone (Inf) of white matter. (a) Time-domain certified CP OCT device "OCT-1300U" with 2 probes: (a2), (a3) forward- flexible hand-held probe for intraoperative use (c1), (c2) providing 2D images (c3); (a4), (a5) needle-like probe for stereotactic biopsy providing 1D imaging (c6) (yellow arrows are showing the blood vessels) and its possible application during frameless stereotactic biopsy using neuronavigation system (c4), (c5). (b) Spectral-domain OCT device (b1), (d1) with flexible contactless multifunctional CP OCT probes for 3D scanning (b2), (b3), (d2) that can provide user with color-coded maps (d3); (b4) rigid attachment of a probe on a special positioner mount for large area scanning; (b5) the end part of the probe is constructed in curve shape for intraoperative use in the field of an operating microscope
Qualitative assessment is based on visual analysis of light attenuation profile in the tissue in cross-sectional OCT images. This method allows differentiation between tu-morous and non-tumorous tissues based on signal intensity parameter as the most powerful criteria (Bohringer et al., 2009; Yashin et al., 2019a). The tumorous tissue is characterized by low signal level and white matter - by high-intensity signal, as shown in Figure 1c3. The key structural element of white matter influencing on features of the received CP OCT signal is the presence of myelin fibers - highly elongated conducting objects. They are responsible for high depolarizing properties demonstrated by white matter in case of fibers chaotic arrangement on the scale of the probing beam while ordered arrangement of myelin fibers causes the origin of linear birefringence and polarizing properties. The qualitative approach provided high sensitivity of (82-85%), specificity (92-94%), and diagnostic accuracy (87 -88%) for distinguishing white matter from tumor tissue (Yashin et al., 2019a).
The quantitative approach based on some optical coefficients calculation is seemed to be more objective and accurate method for OCT data analysis. Different strategies for numerical data obtaining were developed, however, it still requires further studies (Kut et al., 2015; Yashin et al., 2019b). The most widespread optical coefficient being used for quantitative processing of OCT signal received from various brain tissues is attenuation coefficient. The sensitivity and specificity of quantitative approach approximate 100% (Kut et al., 2015; Yashin et al., 2019b).
The combined approach includes building of contrast color-coded maps (en-face view on the tissue) representing their values distribution throughout the image (Kut et al., 2015; Yashin et al., 2019b) and in case of gliomas has shown clear differences between tumorous tissue and white matter, as shown in Figure 1d3. This approach looks more promising for clinical use due to combination of quantitative approach accuracy and user-friendliness for evaluation by neurosurgeon.
Cross-polarization OCT probes for neu-rosurgery
The main part of each sensor device is its distal component, which transfers probing radiation (near IR light in the case of OCT) and receives the signal wave. In OCT this role is played by optical probes, which diversity is very wide. In this paper, we will focus on the description of four different CP OCT probes demonstrated the most valuable clinical applicability. In Table 2 a comparison between these CP OCT probes is presented. The first probe is flexible hand-held CP OCT probe for detecting brain tumor margins, supplied as a standard for TD CP OCT device "OCT-1300U". The second is side-view modification of the flexible hand-held CP OCT probe, designed for the use in conjunction with stereotac-tic biopsy needle for "optical biopsy" and detection of blood vessels in the region of interest directly following surgical procedure. The third probe was developed as a part of fast SD OCT system, which can be used for fundamental studies and emergency pathomorphological examinations. It was applied for obtaining a large amount of human post-mortem and animal specimens' images and was widely used in experimental studies. The last probe design highlighted here is dismountable hand-held curved device intendent to be used in operating room equipped with operating microscope.
Flexible hand-held CP OCT probe
The flexible hand-held CP OCT probe (Fig. 1 a2, a3, c1) was constructed at early stages of common-path OCT development. The 5 m-long fiber probe was realized in few modifications with outer diameter of scanning head varying from 1.6 mm to 2.7 mm. The probing beam driving mechanism was described in details in Feldchtein et al., 2002. The probe head design affords its compatibility with the most of commercially available endoscopes, but it also may be used independently.
The small head size makes it possible to use the probe in any environment and previously studies have demonstrated its applicability for tumorous tissue detection during brain cancer resection using described qualitative (visual)
Table 2
The performance comparison of CP OCT probes
Characteristics
Standard CP OCT probes
Contactless multifunctional CP OCT _probe_
Flexible handheld probe
Specialized CP OCT probes
Dismountable curved hand-held _probe_
Stereotactic needle-type probe
CP OCT device
Probe type
Contact/ Contactless
Outer diameter of the probe
Axial resolution Lateral resolution
Lateral image size
Portability Intraoperative use
Application
Time-domain OCT-1300U
forward-looking
Contact
2.7 mm
15 ^m
25 ^m
2D: 1.3x1.4 mm or 200x256 pixels (width x height)
yes
yes
«optical biopsy» - differentiation between tumor-ous and non-tu-morous tissues
Spectral-domain OCT system
forward-looking
Contactless with contact option
8 mm 10 ^m
15 ^m
3D: 2.4x2.4x1.35 mm or 512x512x256 pixels (width x length x height)
no no
Fundamental studies
and emergency pathomorphological examination
Time-domain OCT-1300U
side-looking
Contact 1.65 mm 15 ^m 25 ^m
2D: from 2 to 200 mm length of the single scan
yes yes
«optical biopsy» blood vessels and tissue type detection
Spectral-domain OCT system
forward-looking
Contact 8 mm 10 ^m
15 ^m
3D: 2.4x2.4x1.35
mm or 512x512x256 pixels (width x length x height)
yes yes
«optical biopsy» - differentiation between tumorous and non-tumorous tissues
CP OCT criteria (Yashin et al., 2019a). However, the positioning of the probe can face several problems due to its flexibility. Moreover, if one needs the scanning pattern stability enough for realization of color-coded maps, OCT angi-ography or elastography modalities that look promising for application during neurosurgical procedures, it is impossible to use this probe due to inability of 3D scanning mode. The possible solution of this problem is the development of dismountable curved hand-held probe that will be described below.
Stereotactic needle-type probe
Intensity-based OCT has demonstrated significant results in detecting pathological
changes in tissues with layered structure The probe was designed for the use in conjunction with TD CP OCT device «OCT-1300U» to provide the navigation guidance during taking a biopsy. The probe head was created in a side-view mode using previously described ideas (Liang et al., 2011; Lorenser et al., 2015; Pichette et al., 2015; Ramakonar et al., 2018).
One of the first ideas of brain imaging through the needle-type OCT probe was published in 2011 and the forward-looking imaging needle implementation to brain imaging was described (Liang et al., 2011). The approach demonstrates high usability but is not applicable for biopsy guidance.
Pichette J et al. reported about the biopsy-needle based design of OCT probe in 2015 (Pichette et al., 2015). They set multiple OCT channels on the outer surface of the needle, making it possible to perform OCT visualization directly during the biopsy sampling. The disadvantage of the method lies in its merit -the sampling stylet window is located in a blind zone of the probe (which may be overcame by the main needle rotation) and the outer part becomes very complex in production.
The most valuable design of the biopsy needle compatible probe was provided by David D. Sampson's group (Ramakonar et al., 2018; Scolaro et al., 2012). The biopsy sampling protocol includes the use of standard biopsy needle cover and two inner items consequently induced into its hole: OCT probe to detect safety-sampling area and standard inner stylet to extract the sample.
We constructed principally the same device: the standard biopsy needle tube was used as a probe head body and a system of GRIN lens, spacer and beam reflecting prism was used to project the fiber tip into the tissue under investigation (Fig. 2). The main differences in our design are the use of the actual inner stylet as a body of the OCT probe, which exit window is filled with optically transparent glue, and abandoning mechanized scanning during the examination. In addition, to redirect radiation towards the exit window, a microprism (item 66-767 from Edmund Optics) was glued to the exit end of the spacer instead of an angled polishing of the spacer fiber. Moreover, since the OCT engine is used with the probe was made as common-path OCT with long length of Fiseau interferometer (distance between the fiber tip and outer lens surface of Flexible hand-held CP OCT probe is 10 mm in air), the same distance was preserved between the fiber tip and outer needle tube surface in a needle-type OCT probe. The last produces several difficulties in probe constructing, but it afforded the probe in-terchangeability with the flexible hand-held CP OCT probe.
The lateral scanning ability was rejected for this probe. The scanning procedure is performed through manual driving of the scanner
along the needle axis and allows recording almost infinite length of the scan. The last gives the opportunity to map the brain from its surface to the target area and be sure that biopsy window is located exactly in tumor area. At this stage of investigations, we believe that preservation of manual driving of the probe is the most appropriate option due to the possibility of varying the velocity of the probe movement (and lateral direction scale on the OCT image) in a wide range based on operator's experience. The image shadow analysis also provides the possibility of detection of large vessels, which should be not a subject of damage during biopsy taking.
Although several scientific groups have already presented stereotactic biopsy needles (Liang et al., 2011; Pichette et al., 2015; Ramakonar et al., 2018), there is no common lens concerning point of its application - vessel detection and preventing hemorrhage or «optical biopsy» of studied tissue. In our opinion, OCT is excellent technology for both tasks and can improve the results of stereotac-tic biopsy. The «optical biopsy» performed immediately during the procedure can dramatically decrease the risk of the acquisition of non-informative diagnostic samples outside from the viable tumor volume (such as necrotic/gliosis or normal white matter), which has been reported in up to 24% of ste-reotactic biopsy series (Dammers et al., 2008; Dammers et al., 2010; Zoeller et al., 2009). Currently, neurosurgeon needs to perform in-tratumoral serial biopsies followed by intraoperative neuropathological assessment (Dammers et al., 2010; Tilgner et al., 2005). It can improve the diagnostic value and accuracy but is associated with an increased risk of intracranial hemorrhages, which have been reported in 0.3-59.8% of cases (Dammers et al., 2008; Field et al., 2001; Grossman et al., 2005) and considerably contribute to the reported mortality of 3,9% (Dammers et al., 2008; Dammers et al., 2010; Field et al., 2001). Stereotactic OCT probe provides the information of blood vessel presence in biopsy point; thereby, surgeon can change the needle position to avoid vessel damage.
Fig. 2. Stereotactic needle-type OCT probe for vessel detection (b3), (b4) and preventing hemorrhage and "optical biopsy" of studied tissue (al). The CP OCT images were obtained from rats with astrocytoma 101.8. (a1) Structural CP OCT image demonstrates clear signal differences between tumor and white matter (WM), yellow dotted rectangle indicates infiltration zone (Inf) of white matter. The arrows on CP OCT images and corresponding histological slices show typical CP OCT signs of vessels
Contactless multifunctional CP OCT probe This probe design does not have any principal differences in comparison with the most of modern 3D MEMS-based OCT probes: it consists of two-axis fast scanning (resonant frequency 340 Hz) MEMS mirror (A8L18.3-4200AU-TINY48.4-B/TP by Mirrorcle Technologies, Inc.) and a simple telecentric scan-
ning lens. The lens is characterized by a relatively short working distance, which allows using the probe in both contact and contactless regimes. The probe body was made to provide compatibility with motorized stage for large area imaging during experiments on animal models or post-mortem samples. The probe demonstrated high potential of 3D CP OCT im-
aging in brain-targeted applications, but its design does not allow using the probe in operating room due to two main factors. Firstly, it is characterized by small length of potentially interchangeable and serializable distal head, which prohibit the use of sterile covers. Secondly, housing profile of the probe is too big for avoiding the overlap of the field of view of operating microscope. While the first problem may be solved by the use of elongated probe head, the second one requires the development of other approaches in constructing of the probe.
This type of probes are widely used in many experimental studies in the field of neurooncol-ogy, performed both in vivo and ex vivo on animals and on patients' samples (Assayag et al., 2013; Bizheva et al., 2007; Yashin et al., 2016; Yashin et al., 2019b; You et al., 2020). This type of probe has potential to be a part of optical digital pathomorphological systems with advanced label-based and label-free photonic technologies together along with advances in artificial intelligence, machine learning and computer-aided diagnosis algorithm (Krafft et al., 2018). In particular for neuropathologist OCT can have a powerful impact in the following clinical situations: (1) when excisional biopsy is hazardous and fast real-time feedback for neurosurgeon is required such as following stereotactic biopsy; (2) when pathologists need guidance to select areas of tumor mass in large tissue specimens for histological evaluation such as following temporal lobectomy for diffuse astrocytoma.
Hand-held curved CP OCT probe
Currently two main competitive concepts of using OCT during open neurosurgical procedures have been suggested. On the other hand, the OCT integration into surgical microscope looks the most obviously and comfortable option for surgeon providing wide-OCT imaging directly in oculars (Bohringer et al., 2009; Finke et al., 2012; Lankenau et al., 2007). However, realization of this idea requires the reconstruction of production-release design and building of so-called «OCT-ready» surgical microscope by the developer company. The handheld imaging probes (Dammers et al., 2010;
Garzon-Muvdi et al., 2017; Yashin et al., 2019a) do not need such technical advances and can be used jointly with microscope for intraoperative assessment of tissues. In brain tumor surgery OCT can be used for in situ detection of cancer tissue via «optical biopsy». However, most of suggested systems are not comfortable in clinical use due to their size, shape, flexibility etc.
The bayonet-shaped CP OCT probe presented in this paper seems to be most favorable option since this construction is familiar for surgeon and preserves field of view, as shown in Figure 3a. The probe consists of two detachable parts - the scanning head with long flexible cable and a group of focusing optics with folded axis contained in a stainless steel tube of complex shape. The focusing optics group is designed from telecentric scanning group (1) and 1:1 translator (3) (Fig. 3b) combined with equilateral prism, which entrance and exit sides are orthogonal to the chief ray of probing beam. The prism glass (BK7) refractive index and the angle of incidence to the reflecting side (60 degrees) cause total internal reflection from this face, therefore, this element does not induce optical losses into the optical path of the device. To minimize flare-blinding effects the exit window of the probe is made of curved inner shape, the outer surface has small tilt (2 degrees) to the optical axis of the probe. In addition to flare repression, the tilted outer surface helps to prevent the appearance of air bubbles when touching an uneven elastic surface by squeezing the latter over the edge of the window.
Long focal lens using in the optical setup provides paraxial beam propagation and causes diffraction limited quality of the beam in its focal plane. The optical setup provides 15 um axial resolution while the Rayleigh length is about 0.5 mm. The system is achromatized for 12501350 nm optical range, the image distortion not exceed 0.5% value.
The optic group connection is made based on of LEMO's® Push-Pull Self-Latching Connection System (not shown in detail of Fig. 3), well known by the most of clinicians. The length of dismountable probe tip is 150 mm that is
(a) (b)
Fig. 3. Optical setup of bayonet-shaped probe for CP OCT: (a) external view; (b) schematic and. 1 - telecen-tric scanning lens group, 2 - probe folding, 3 - replaceable sterilizeable optical beam translator, 4 - standard LEMO's® coupling, 5 - main optical axis
enough to provide the possibility to use it conjunctly with operating microscope.
Due to the use of LEMO's® connection the distal part of the probe may be easily dismounted and then sterilized using one of standard protocols based on chemical solutions or gas methods applicable for endoscope systems including STERRAD. The prohibited sterilizing methods include usage of solutions containing hydrogen peroxide (concentration 6% or more), formic acid and other strong oxidants, incl. ozone. With all methods of disinfection and sterilization, the temperature should not exceed 100 degrees Celsius, sudden changes in temperature are also not allowed. The probe scanning head with its flexible connection cable may be treated with disinfectant solutions but it should be enclosed in sterile cover while in the operating room.
Conclusions
Recently studies have been shown that OCT has a great potential in neurosurgery the best known in brain tumor surgery. As described here through different types of probes there are multiple applications where OCT can play a highly complementary role in offering the realtime microscopic assessment and imaging of tissues during brain tumor surgery, stereotactic biopsy and in the pathology laboratory. The biopsy-needle based probe for CP OCT was
shown as an effective instrument for brain tissue mapping and express estimation of tissue status as well as for detecting large blood vessels to prevent causing bleeding during biopsy sampling. The folded CP OCT probe for intraoperative use for brain tissue examination was shown as a potentially efficient sensor head for CP OCT. The probe demonstrated high lateral resolution in diffractive limited probing beam quality. The length of dismountable probe tip allows using the probe under operating microscope. The designed family of specialized probes allows CP OCT to occupy a niche of devices for express brain tissue examination in situ after finishing of the approvement for clinical use process.
Conflicts of interest: the authors declare no conflict of interest.
Funding: this research was funded by the State Task of IAP RAS (Project No. 0030-2021-0013).
Acknowledgements
The authors express their deep gratitude to Dr. Nikolay N. Karyakin (rector of PRMU, Nizhny Novgorod, Russia) for active supporting translation of CP OCT into clinical usage. We also thank the Maria Chugrina for her help with the design of figures.
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