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14CONCEPTUAL MATRIX OF SOCIALIZATION: EXPERIENCE OF PRELIMINARY SYSTEMATIZATION
Abstract
This article provides a conceptual framework for thinking about socialization as a system of sociological categories, such as crisis points of socialization, functions and dysfunctions of socialization, dev'ance as a necessary sign of socialization, cultural diversity and political regime as the context of socialization, acceptance of roles and training in cultural norms, picture of the world, education, enculturation, assimilation, the formation of personality, institutions and agents of socialization, strong and weak ties M. Granovetter in the process of socialization, lifestyle, life career, life plans, life experience, stratification and inequality in the process of socialization, married socialization, levels of consideration and barriers of socialization, socialization and adaptation, and history of the study of socialization. The author tries to consider socialization from the point of view of modern theories, since from the point of view of the classics the problem has already been considered. To prepare the chapter, the author applied the methods of primary (author's research of 1979-1991) and secondary analysis, comparative historical and cross-cultural analysis, document analysis (Russian and foreign publications for the period 19802017).
Keywords
desocialization, resocialization, agents, institutions and types of socialization, life cycle, inculturation and education, two-career socialization, socialization and adaptation
AUTHOR
Albert I. Kravchenko
Doctor of Sociology, Professor, leading researcher of the Department of History and Theory of Sociology of the sociological faculty,
Lomonosov Moscow State University, GSP-1, Leninskie Gory, Moscow, 119991, Russian Federation E-mail: [email protected]
History of the study of socialization
The roots of the study of the problem of socialization go deep into the history of social thought. In the teachings of Plato, the main mechanism for the transformation of man into a social being is socialization (in the narrow sense - education): every Greek had to start training in early childhood and finish in old age. You can learn everything literally, above all, moral virtues, and then school subjects: astronomy, biology, mathematics, political science and philosophy. Neuchi falls to the very bottom of society - in the undergraduate: slaves, runaway, beggars, drunkards, corrupt and homeless. The underdogs settle in the lower class, replenishing the ranks of artisans and peasants. Horoshisty fall into the knightly stratum of the soldiers, who at all times belonged to the aristocracy. And, at last, round honors pupils, and always their minority, grew up in wise rulers.
The Roman philosopher Severin Boethius belongs to the division of scientific knowledge into "trivium" (grammar, rhetoric, dialectics) and "quadrivium" (geometry,
arithmetic, astronomy and music). Boethius posed the main problem - self-reproduction -self-learning and education throughout life. And this is the core of the process of socialization.
Herbert Spencer believed that man by nature is antisocial, he becomes a social being through the passage through the crucible of social institutions: domestic, ritual, political, ecclesiastical, etc., which are mechanisms of self-organization of people's joint activities. The mechanism for the evolution of society is the struggle for survival. Conflicts are the crucible through which the process of socio-anthropogenesis of mankind (phylogeny) as a whole and a separate individual (ontogeny) in particular has passed. Spencer interpreted education as a broad social phenomenon, and education as one of the most important social institutions.
E. Durkheim first separated socialization from education. The three most important categories - education, socialization and education - are closely related, and the backbone of this system is socialization. He understood socialization as a means of reproducing the conditions of his existence by society. He wrote that with the further development of the social division of labor and the unification of the working people into professional corporations, society will be more and more rallying, i.e. there will come a process of progressive socialization, bringing it closer to the realization of a moral socialist ideal (Durkheim, 1950).
In the concept of E.G. Erickson stages of socialization are associated with life cycles. Its author knew socialization not only as an individual, but also to a large extent as a collective process, which is formed, including, and through a process of identification of the individual with his group, the people, the community. Erickson identified eight socialization phases: infancy, early childhood, gaming age, school age, adolescence, early adulthood, adulthood, maturity (Erikson, 1968).
In turn, A. Adler argued that in the course of socialization the child under the disciplining influence of parents develops an inferiority complex, the overcoming of which gives rise to a person's desire for power, which leads to aggression. Jean Piaget explored socialization as a cognitive development or learning process of thinking (Adler, 1938).
Representatives of symbolic interactionism made an important contribution to the development of the theory of socialization. In particular, G. Mead interpreted the formation of the personality at the same time as "becoming oneself" and "opening the society for oneself." (Mead, 1934). The child discovers who he is, comprehending that there is a society. He is trained in the appropriate roles, i.e. Learns to "take on the role of another", and through this, he forms the representation of a "generalized other". Based on observations of the behavior of C. Cooley children I came to the conclusion that man finds his self, imagining how he is perceived by others. Cooley called this image "a mirror image." In the theory of socialization of G. Mead, two sides or two aspects of personality are distinguished: I and Me. I is the natural matrix of man, the pantry of all sorts of instincts, impulses, feelings and needs, to which society has not been touched. On the contrary, Me is the whole result of socialization, an artifact made by society. It is formed due to "a look at oneself from the side". Other people do not just look at us, but also look after us. In other words, not only socialize, but also control us.
C. Cooley and G. Mead argue that the child learns to understand himself when they take on the role of others. A person imagines what he sees as an observer, ascribing a definite judgment to him, and reacts - with joy or with resentment - to this judgment prescribed to another (Cooley, 1964). The child realizes other people as objects before he realizes himself as an object; he uses the names of others before he learns his own. At first the child learns to distinguish people from things and only after that is able to catch the difference between individuals. The behavior of people for him seems much more messy than the interaction of physical objects. The same person not only behaves
differently in different circumstances, but also contradicts himself. Therefore, to approach human behavior with the same requirements, for example, logical inconsistency, as to the world of natural phenomena, is illegitimate. This is the secret of the art of communication and collective interaction.
According to G. Mead, the process of socialization includes three stages. The first is imitation. At this stage, children copy the behavior of adults without understanding it. Then follows the game stage, when children understand behavior as the performance of certain roles: doctor, fireman, racing driver, etc.; in the process of playing they reproduce these roles. The transition from one role to another develops in children the ability to attach to their thoughts and actions the meaning that other members of society attach to them - this is the next important step in the process of creating their "I". The third stage, according to Mead, is the stage of collective games, when children learn to realize the expectations of not only one person, but the whole group.
According to George Mead, the conscious "I" grows out of the social process. Socialization and growing up of a person is understood as "finding a role". The objects surrounding the person become carriers of meaning, they are connected with what we call symbols. Mead believed that the most important thing for a person is his language skills. The ability to speak makes him a social being. He wanted to root psychology in social reality, therefore it is believed that interactivity emerged as part of social psychology (Mead, 1934).
Many of Mead's ideas coincided with those of the so-called cultural school, whose leader was the Soviet psychologist Vygotsky, who believed that if the child was deprived of the variety of roles he performed, he lost both his intellect and the ability to develop self-awareness (Vygotsky, 1978).
Social interaction in symbolic interactionism is conceived as the fulfillment of various roles by a person. Depending on what kind of social mask a person puts on himself, so he becomes at the moment. In a world-famous experiment, P.G. Zimbardo was turned into a prisoner and warden for just two weeks, but they got so involved in their roles, they began to pursue, beat and hate each other so much that the experiment that took place in a real prison ended in a week's time (Zimbardo,2009).
Thus, the students participated in a kind of role-playing game, the purpose of which was to find out how the played role will affect the behavior and experiences of people. The game was planned so that the participants did not suspect anything. They were taken at night, they did not know where they were, the experiment was continuous every day and night, the subjects had no contact with the outside world. In the experiment, some students turned into real overseers not because they so wanted. They stopped playing for fun and became supervisors essentially because another group of students looked and treated them exactly like supervisors. "Total Institute", as the prison in 1961 called one of the leaders of interactivity, Irving Goffman, completely absorbed the subjects. They forgot the old habits, stereotypes and norms of behavior. They are completely reincarnated. In other words, in their experiences and actions, students turned into prisoners and supervisors.
The most detailed sociological theory describing the integration of the individual into the social system was proposed by T. Parsons. According to Parsons, it occurs through the internalization (internal acceptance) of generally accepted norms based on the identification of the individual with significant figures (for example, in childhood - with the figure of the father or mother, in adolescence - with the figure of the leader, etc.). In the process of internalization, social norms become internal to the individual, external sanctions (external regulation) are replaced by internal control, there is a need to meet social norms. The basis of the process of socialization "is genetically this plasticity of the human body and its ability to learn. The early stages of this process take place everywhere
within related groups, and especially in the nuclear family. Although socialization occurs in all social groups, but outside the family, it is, of course, the most concentrated in collectives engaged in formal education, whose importance in the progressive degree increases with the course of social evolution."
The process of socialization lasts a lifetime, because a person for his life learns a lot of social roles. It is divided into various stages - the initial (socialization of the child, predominantly in the family), the secondary (schooling) and the final (the socialization of the adult person mastering new roles - spouse, parent, grandfather, etc.). In addition, primary socialization is singled out, which is carried out by the closest informal environment, primarily by the family (and also by other relatives, friends, teachers, doctors, etc.), and secondary socialization, which takes place at a more formal, institutionalized level. Here a man is waited by a school, high school, mass media, army, production and many others. The process of assimilation of cultural norms was called internalization, and the development of social roles - socialization.
P. Berger and T. Luckmann singled out the two main forms of socialization primary and secondary, believing that the primary socialization is crucial for the fate of the individual and the functioning of society. It they called quasi-automatic, because the identification of a child with meaningful others occurs in addition to his free choice. "Secondary socialization is the acquisition of specific role knowledge, when the roles are directly or indirectly related to the division of labor." Socialization is not limited to children's experience. It never stops, it lasts a lifetime. P. Berger and T. Luckmann showed that education implies the mandatory assimilation of a system of legitimations in culture, that is, explanations and justifications of the institutional order. Symbolic universes are the matrix of all socially objectified and subjectively real meanings; they classify phenomena in certain categories of the hierarchy of being (Berger; Lukman, 1995).
For P. Bourdieu, socialization and adaptation are some fields of efforts applied by individuals or people, another sphere of struggle between classes and parties. The system of education, the state, religion, politics, sport, language, art, unemployment, church, political parties, trade unions are not machines or institutions, and especially not organizations, but fields. The field consists of mutually related positions, objectively existing opportunities to manifest themselves - roles or niches in the struggle for the prizes being played in this field. The social field, according to Bourdieu, can describe a multidimensional space of positions in which any position, in turn, again represents a multidimensional coordinate system whose values correlate with the corresponding variables. Variables can be various types of capital - economic, social, and symbolic or some other. Many years of studying the field of higher education, the field of literature, the field of science, the field of religion and the field of economics convinced P. Bourdieu that there are almost the same laws as on the football field, namely, competition and open struggle between equal rivals, monopoly and Domination by a strong rival, a flexible system of supply and demand, played out among co-workers (social exchange, exchange of passes, moving to a vacant place, etc.). That is why the field, including the educational one, can be likened to the market. Any field in this sense is a market where specific capital is produced and traded (Bourdieu, 1996).
American psychologist Laurence Kohlberg spent several decades on longitudinal and cross-cultural studies of the "child as a moral philosopher". In 1981, Colberg suggested that children undergo six stages in the ability of moral problems. Social psychologist Carol Gillian proposed to expand the scope of moral behavior and include responsibility and care for loved ones. Gillian discovered that the value system of girls and women in the process of socialization is different from men.
Russian scientists showed great interest in problems. L.S. Vygotsky saw in socialization the process of transforming the interpsychic into intrapsychic, and it is
carried out only in the course of joint activity and communication. In the works of L.S. Vygotsky, A.L. Leontiev, S.L. Rubinshtein, and A.R. Luria, an analysis of the correlation between the biological and social in a man is given, where socio-cultural factors are given priority. In other words, socialization, in the opinion of Soviet scientists, is the process of transforming an individual with his natural talents and potential opportunities for social development into a full-fledged member of society.
In the 1960s and 1970s, works by B.G. Ananiev "On the psychological effects of socialization" (1971), V.S. Merlin "Formation of individuality and socialization of the individual" (1970), E.S. Kuzmina "Fundamentals of social psychology" ( 1967), B.D. Parygin "Social psychology as a science" (1967). I.S. Kon defined socialization as the assimilation by an individual of social experience, during which a specific person is created. B.D. Parygin believed that the process of socialization is an entry into the social environment, adaptation to it, the development of certain roles and functions, which, following their predecessors, each individual repeats throughout his life. G.M. Andreeva highlights several stages depending on the attitude to work. The system of socialization is aimed at shaping the personality of the "new formation", which combines a high level of culture, education, and intelligence.
According to A.V. Petrovsky, socialization is the process and result of the assimilation and active reproduction of the individual social experience, carried out in communication and activity (Petrovsky, 1989). At the same time, socialization can occur both under conditions of spontaneous influence on the personality of various circumstances of life in society, sometimes having the character of differently directed factors, and under conditions of upbringing. Socialization is the process of personal acceptance of values, norms and culture of the society, development of necessary social skills, social interactions (Kuzmin E.S., Semenov V.E.). In the process of socialization comes the transformation of social experience into one's own attitudes, values and orientations, the assimilation of social norms and roles. The process of socialization includes the formation of social ties, social attitudes and relations. Interest in socialization, or rather, desocialisation and resocialization, is actively manifested in criminologists, lawyers, in particular in the works of Yu. M. Antonin, B.N. Kudryavtsev, N.A. Struchkov, A.R. Ratinov, A.M. Yakovlev and others.
The results of D. Bollinger, S. Paffer, E. Jones, G.U. Soldatova, N.M. Lebedeva testify to the intermediate position of Russia on the scale of individualism - collectivism. The authors note changes in the culture of Russia, recorded on the scales of cultural measurements. At the present time, there has been a shift in Russian culture from the collectivist pole to the individualist; In the former Soviet republics, Russians are less collectivist than the titular population. In contact with collectivist cultures, Russians celebrate individualistic traits, and with individualistic cultures - features of collectivism. Although Russia has traditionally been referred to feminine cultures (N.A. Berdyaev, V.V. Rozanov), the masculinity index is currently increasing. According to the data of S. Paffer and A.I. Naumova (a sample of 250 people), in the mid-1990s, the average level of individualism, muscularity and power distance was revealed in the minds of Russians, moderately high - paternalism and avoidance of uncertainty. The young generation of Russians, which entered the industrial life in the era of perestroika, has high scores on the scale of muscularity and low on the scale of paternalism. If before NA. Berdyaev, V.O. Klyuchevsky and G.P. Fedotov noted a great distance of power in Russia, but now its rate is decreasing.
In the 21st century, the efforts of scientists from the United States, Europe, Russia and other countries are aimed at applying the general theory of socialization created in the previous period to practical problems and situations. Today, such issues as socialization in orphanages, foster families, home schooling, army units, prisons and
places of detention are actively studied. The amount of empirical data obtained in different countries exceeds that required for the creation of new theories of socialization. In the past 20-30 years, according to the author, not a single holistic theory of socialization has been created, which can be compared with what was done by the classics of world sociology.
The exception is the teaching of M. Granovetter, consisting of several parts. Two of them are of particular interest: the theory of embeddedness and the theory of strong and weak connections (Granovetter, 1983). Mark Granovetter argued that economic behavior is built into the social relations and network structures of modern society. Social ties in these structures are divided into two types - strong and weak. Strong ties consist of closest friends, relatives and acquaintances. They will help in a difficult moment of life and serve as a reliable support. But often friends are not experts on topics for which you urgently need information, for example, how to better employ yourself. To help with their advice and knowledge come familiar acquaintances and strangers, found on the Internet. Weak links are an excellent source of information, and strong links are a reserve of help. Paul Adams in the study found that people usually have 4-6 different groups of friends. People usually have fewer than ten strong bonds that consume most of the attention of their lives. Usually they have no more than 150 weak links. I think that the theory of M. Granovetter, created not to study socialization, but to study economic relations, should be more actively connected to the problems of socialization.
The author's task is to attempt to generalize the old and new data on socialization, on the basis of which to formulate some general theoretical framework for understanding socialization today. It is necessary to generalize empirical data and theoretical ideas into a logical whole in order to try to build on this foundation new sociological theories of socialization. In the second part of the article the author in the abstract form outlines possible contours of the theoretical paradigm of socialization for today.
Agents, institutions and types of socialization
Socialization is the assimilation by a person independently or through a purposeful influence (upbringing) of a certain system of values, social norms and patterns of behavior necessary for the emergence of the individual, finding a social position in society; Beginning in infancy and ending in a very old age, the process of mastering social roles and cultural norms. Socialization must be considered in the unity of two factors - the mechanism of socialization and the process of socialization. The basis of the mechanism of socialization are agents and institutions of socialization. Agents of socialization are specific people responsible for teaching cultural norms and mastering social roles. Institutes of socialization are institutions that influence the process of socialization and direct it.
Since socialization is divided into two types - primary and secondary, the agents and institutions of socialization are divided into primary and secondary. Primary socialization agents - parents, brothers, sisters, grandmothers, grandfathers, close and distant relatives, babysitters, family friends, peers, teachers, trainers, doctors, leaders of youth groups. Briefly, there are three primary socialization agents - family, school and peers. The most important act of primary socialization is breastfeeding. Breastfeeding is a subtle emotional relationship between mother and child, the same level as a gentle gesture or kiss. It helps the successful implementation of socialization at an early age. Breastfeeding is an intimate sphere of life for every family, protected and revered by the stronger sex. People erected this act of primary socialization to the level of high culture and religious veneration, it is enough to recall the feeding Madonna. It is known that in the northern
countries women often breast-feed for a very long time, up to a year or two. These children grow well, and these women feel great.
The term "primary socialization" has two meanings in sociology. It means a) parents, relatives and friends, i.e. primary group or immediate environment; b) the earliest stage of socialization in infancy and virginity. Secondary socialization, respectively, refers to secondary groups (social institutions and institutions) and continues throughout the rest of life.
For agents of primary socialization, who are in interpersonal relations and a system of mutual dependence, so-called reciprocal socialization (reciprocal socialization) is characteristic. Reciprocal socialization is the process of mutual socialization by parents of children and children - their parents. Parents coordinate their words and actions in the presence of children, because they are very receptive to everything that comes from these most authoritative agents of socialization for them. In this way, parents educate themselves. To bi-directional processes of influence of agents of socialization it is necessary to include marital socialization, during which the husband influences his wife, and the wife - on her husband.
Secondary socialization agents - representatives of the administration of the school, university, enterprise, army, police, church, state, employees of television, radio, press, parties, courts, etc. Secondary groups, and this will be discussed further, in sociology are called formal organizations, official institutions and their employees: enterprise, state, media, army, court, church, etc.
Primary socialization occurs most intensively in the first half of life, although, in decreasing order, it persists in the second half. Primary socialization is the sphere of interpersonal relations, the secondary one is the sphere of social relations. One and the same person can be an agent of both primary and secondary socialization. The teacher, if there is a trusting relationship between him and the student, will be among the agents of primary socialization. But if he only fulfills his formal role, he will be an agent of secondary socialization. Primary socialization agents perform every set of functions (father -guardian, administrator, educator, teacher, friend), and secondary - one or two.
The adolescent period and adolescence represent an age when the agents of primary socialization (with the exception of the peer group) begin to play a smaller role, and the agents of secondary socialization are larger. In adulthood, secondary socialization agents come to the fore or are equalized in terms of the degree of influence with agents of secondary socialization. Youth completes the active period of socialization. Young people are usually referred to as adolescents and young people between 13 and 19 years of age. During this period, the attitude towards the opposite sex begins to form, aggressiveness, aspiration to risk, independence and independence grows.
Among the primary socialization agents, not all play the same role and have equal status. In relation to the child passing through socialization, parents are in a superior position. On the contrary, peers are equal to him. They forgive him a lot of things that parents do not forgive: erroneous decisions, violation of moral principles and social norms, impudence, etc.
In a sense, coevals and parents act on the child in opposite directions, and the former negate the efforts of the latter. In other words, in adults, a child learns how to be an adult, and in peers - how to be a child: to be able to fight, cunning, treat the opposite sex, be friends and be just. Therefore, parents often look at their peers as their competitors in the struggle for influence on the child.
A small group of peers performs the most important social function - facilitates the transition from a state of dependence to independence, from childhood to adulthood. Parents are unlikely to teach how to be a leader or to gain dominance over others.
The functions of the primary socialization agents are interchangeable, and the secondary one is not. This is explained by the fact that the first are universal, and the latter are specialized. For example, the functions of parents and peers are interchangeable. The latter often replace the former, performing their functions of socialization. And vice versa. Interchangeable functions of parents and relatives, the latter can replace the former.
But the same cannot be said about secondary socialization agents, since they are narrowly specialized: a judge cannot replace a foreman or teacher. Agents of primary socialization, on the contrary, are universal. But only, unlike parents who lay down basic values and long-term goals, peers have more influence on momentary behavior, appearance, choice of sexual partner and places of leisure. The difference between the two types of socialization agents is also that secondary socialization agents receive money for fulfilling their role, and agents of primary socialization do not receive. Primary socialization is mainly the domain of attributed statuses, the secondary one is the sphere of attainment.
Agents and leaders of socialization - those people, who call for a change in valuesor behavior, submit samples of moral or immoral behavior, etc. Hitler, Mahatma Gandhi, Stalin - leaders and agents of socialization. Mendicant monks and holy fools are leaders and heroes of socialization. In general, the charismatic personality is a typical socializer, as well as other authoritative personalities; it can become a courtyard guy, a karate coach, a telegraph, a pop star, a school teacher.
Agents of primary and secondary socialization have on the personality of a person sometimes a coincident, unidirectional impact, and sometimes - contradictory, multidirectional. And the contradiction characterizes the disharmony between
• Primary socialization agents
• Secondary socialization agents
• Agents of primary and secondary socialization.
If, for example, a family teaches a teenager one values, and a peer group is completely different, then not only competition but also a contradiction forms between the agents of primary socialization. Another example is the difference between religious values and business values. Religion teaches us such moral norms as helping our relatives, teaches us not to deceive, to be modest in our desires and needs, and to devote our time to resolving spiritual matters. Business requires the opposite qualities: often it is built on deception, the pursuit of material values, and the desire to stand out, to make a career. He forces a professional businessman to shine all his free time to solve only material issues, while the church calls on a person to think about the eternal, immaterial.
In a sense, peers and parents act on the child in opposite directions and the first ones bring to nothing the efforts of the latter. Parents often look at their peers as their competitors in the struggle for influence on the child.
The two other institutions of socialization-education and the army-are entering into a profound contradiction. The call of young men to the army for two years immediately after graduation is often a barrier to education. After 2 years of service in the army, the knowledge gained at school disappears. There is a reassessment of values, and the motivation for learning may also be lost. The greater the gap between two stable periods (school and university), the deeper the crisis and the irreversible process.
It is best for the graduate to enter the university in the first year. Between two phases, the break should not exceed two months. It is worthwhile to tighten it from two months to two years, which leave for service in the army, you can forget about entering the university without serious additional training. Explanation should be sought in the features of motivation for learning. Schoolchildren have not yet developed into a stable vital need. Children, as you know, study for their parents. All that is not strengthened
easily lost. Even the year of the gap between school and university is difficult for many to overcome. They simply lose interest in learning.
In the former USSR, for those who served in the army, there were workers' faculties (preparatory faculties), where the final exams were equated with the entrance to the university. For the demobilized there were numerous benefits, which are now virtually gone. Nevertheless, even then the army turned into a serious barrier to further education. In many ways, therefore, the girls dominated the student body.
The main institution of secondary socialization is the school, and then the university. They are called upon to give the child what the family cannot give him, namely, a set of systematized scientific knowledge. Prior to joining the school, the child spent all of his time in informal small groups - in the family, in friendly peer groups. For all those around him, he (she) was a unique and unique person. Sitting at his desk, he (she) becomes one of many, acquiring the formal status of a pupil, a pupil. In this sense, it can be argued that secondary socialization begins before the school - for those children who are brought to a kindergarten or even a nursery school. And orphans - inmates of orphanages - find themselves altogether deprived of primary socialization, starting their lives almost immediately with the secondary.
Preparing for an independent life today is not only more prolonged than in a traditional society, but also an expensive event. Give a full-fledged education to all comers, i.e. representatives of all social strata, human society was able only in the XX century. Tens of thousands of years, it accumulated for these material resources. Universal secondary education is a serious achievement of our time.
Parents understand that higher education should be a basic one. But now the level of knowledge that the school gives is very different from the requirements set by the university. There is a gap that has now become catastrophic. Mediators appear: tutors, preparatory courses.
The school does not perform the function of socializer because the level of training in it is constantly decreasing, and the level of requirements in the current university is constantly growing. There are scissors, which are cut down by numerous mediators: tutors, preparatory faculties and courses. For 3000-5000 dollars they will prepare your child to the university. They fill the gap in knowledge and reduce the gap in requirements.
The cultural function of education is the use of previously accumulated knowledge and values, the regulation of the relationship between the generations: the older generation acts as teachers, the younger generation - the pupils.
The school is able not only to change the social structure of society by allowing the prepared young people from the bottom up on the upper steps, but also to consolidate and stabilize it. Privileged classes have their own, as a rule, private schools, where the quality of education is higher and where access is limited to representatives of other layers. The managerial and political elite, the business class and the intelligentsia are usually replenished with graduates of elite schools.
As shown by sociological research and statistics, the modern general education school does not fully fulfill any of its tasks: the level of deviant behavior of underage youth, including crime, alcoholism, drug addiction, prostitution, etc., is increasing. The school does not solve the problem of professional self-determination. She is unable to prepare entrants for entrance examinations to the university.
According to the forecast, the proportion of applicants entering the university only on the basis of school knowledge, even in the 21st century, will not exceed 40%, so that 60% of secondary school graduates will be forced to seek additional forms of preparation for the university. Apparently, there is a significant gap in the understanding of basic knowledge between teachers of secondary schools and university professors. Sociological data show that 42.2% of university teachers in regional and republican centers and 32.8%
of teachers in Moscow and St. Petersburg have noted a sharp decline in the last years of the level of preparation of applicants for competitive examinations to universities. And a significant reduction in the quality of preparation of the abortion is typical for those who apply to all faculties.
Desocialization and resocialization
Continued socialization, as well as social adaptation, should be distinguished from the processes of desocialization and resocialization. These processes belong to the stage of adult socialization; their subject is already a socialized individual. With regard to the child, it is more accurate to talk about successful or unsuccessful socialization.
Resocialization is not only retraining in extreme, but also in normal conditions. The pace of society's life has changed dramatically today. New generations of technology are ahead of the succession of generations of people. A person has to learn and retrain all his life, adapting to constantly changing conditions. Adaptation is the whole period of constant adaptation, resocialization within this process as an adaptive social practice. These practices include: continuing education, adult education, and second higher education.
Entry into any social institution abroad is associated with resocialization. But meeting with such total institutions that require complete "forging", like a prison or army barracks, can be called an extreme resocialization. These include ghettos and reservations, mental hospitals, correctional facilities, prisoners of war camps, boarding houses for the elderly, monasteries, boarding schools and orphanages, juvenile educational colleges, correctional labor colonies, totalitarian sects
It is a system of closed forced relations and imposed morals. The way of life is planned through strict regulation and petty supervision; routine exercises form a twilight consciousness. It is impossible to build life plans and think about prospects. The famous prison experiment, conducted by Professor Philip Zimbardo and his colleagues in 1971, serves as a vivid example of desocialization and resocialization. Randomly, they were divided into two groups. The first group was given the form of guards and sunglasses, and the second group was given out the robes of the prisoners and put in cells. The experimenters explained to the subjects that 12 students (9 basic and 3 for replacement) will play the role of guards, and the same number of prisoners. The distribution of roles took place randomly (they tossed a coin). Nobody picked up fierce sadists in guards, and prisoners - prone to obedience and conformism. Prisoners and guards were randomly leveled by their physical and spiritual qualities. Although the students voluntarily could stop the experiment and leave it at any time, most of them seemed to forget about it, deeply immersed in the imaginary situation. In particular, they complained to each other about the intolerable situation, the feeling of despair and loneliness. As a result, six days later Philip Zimbardo stopped the experiment, which really began to threaten the health of participants. In his report, he wrote that the experiment showed that roles and "orders of superiors" can turn a good person into a sadist. Moreover, according to other scientists, this experiment shows that in any American city there would be enough people who could work as guards of concentration camps. Psychological testing showed that the most and least offensive students-guards were slightly different from each other on the scale of authoritarianism and Machiavellianism. Insulting behavior of guards, most likely, was caused by the peculiarities of the situation, rather than personal qualities.
Socialization and life cycles
Socialization goes through stages that coincide with the so-called life cycles. They mark important milestones in a person's biography, which can perfectly serve as qualitative stages in the formation of the social self: admission to the university (cycle of student life), marriage (family life cycle), career choice and employment (labor cycle), military service (army cycle) , Retirement (pension cycle).
Life cycles are associated with the change of social roles, the acquisition of a new status, with a change in old habits, social environment, with a change in the way of life. Stages of the life cycle - a change in the types of resocialization. The entire process of socialization throughout life is in fact a sequence of time in the phases of resocialization. The transition from one stage of the life cycle to another is often experienced as a psychological crisis, during which a person has to comprehend the path he has traveled, change his ideas about himself and about the world, and correct further goals and plans. Each time, entering a new cycle, a person has to learn a lot or re-learn, adapt to new conditions.
During the life cycle, the individual passes through three crisis points (phases) associated with critical events in socialization:
• from 1 year to 17 years - the completion of schooling and preparation for an active work period,
• from 18 to 60 years - an active labor period, the formation of professional roles,
• from 60 years and older - exit from the active labor period.
Midlife
FIGURE 1 - CRISIS POINTS OF THE LIFE CYCLE OF SOCIAL IZATION © AUTHOR, 2003
The period of active socialization of ABC is indicated by three points of the crisis. A
- the end of the school (university) and the beginning of the labor activity; B - midlife crisis; With - the termination of a labor career and an exit on pension. Each point is the concentration of negative motivation, uncertainty in connection with the expected future. The transition from A to B, from B to C is an alternative, in which two points are connected
- desocialization and resocialization.
The disintegration of the USSR in 1991 fell on the middle of the generation X generation, from 1963 to 1983 (the upbringing and maturing took place before 1993).
When democratic reforms failed in Russia in the mid-1990s and it became much harder to live, most Russians began to feel nostalgia for the Soviet era. By that time, the initial euphoria associated with the first years of the establishment of capitalism had passed; the positive motivation had been replaced by a negative one. A decade earlier, another generation of Soviet people in the mid-1980s expected the collapse of the communist system and the onset of democracy.
In Fig. 1. the period between the three points, indicated by the figure ABC, represents the time of maximum creative and labor activity of a person. It is preceded by a period of maximum educational activity - 10-11-year-old schooling. Age from 16 to 18 years is at the end of the school and the professional self-determination of the young man. The first crisis point of 16-18 years means such a turning point in the life of a young man, when the old model of socially and economically incompetent life (under the care of parents) collapsed, and a new model of independent behavior and lifestyle has not yet developed. Formally, during this period a person becomes labor-active.
A person has to choose the future profession and career at an age when he is least ready for it. He does not have enough knowledge and life experience. That's why after graduating from university more than 30% of young people in modern Russia work not in their specialty. To the advice of older relatives - parents, grandparents - she does not listen because they lived in another historical era and with a different generation of technology and technology. Elder relatives, advising young people, serve as agents of socialization, but not always successfully.
The intelligentsia, which fills three layers of the middle class-the lower, middle and upper levels-independently of their income orientates children only to higher education. Parents, even severely limited in their material capacities, invest the last money in the education of children. The formula "the best investment is the education of our children" is the leitmotif of all the life of the middle class, which itself is formed of representatives of the educated part of society. Children grow up in a constant focus on higher education. They always have the right socializers, capable of giving the right advice, all family incomes are mobilized for them, and a favorable spiritual environment is created during the training.
There is nothing like this in the families of workers and peasants, the bulk of which belongs to the lower class, regardless of income. Children here are little oriented towards university education. A living example of a highly educated specialist engaged in prestigious and creative work, they do not see in their immediate surroundings: their parents, relatives and acquaintances, as a rule, are representatives of the same class. True, in the Soviet society, where the way up was open to representatives of all strata and classes, a so-called non-class model of socialization was formed. Everyone aspired to higher education in the USSR: the children of workers, peasants and intellectuals. Moreover, the first to admit even preferred. The university was a dream for all Soviet youth.
The investment of all the capital in the education of intellectuals 'children is helped by parents' orientation toward higher education and strong motivation for the achievement raised in their children by their parents. Even with the same material opportunities for workers and intellectuals, their children have unequal chances of enrolling in an institution of higher learning. Often the free capitals of the family of workers and peasants can not properly apply: they do not know good repeaters, they do not have acquaintances among the university teachers, they fail the first thing they do when they fail. But more often the situation is different: families from the lower class are unable to accumulate the necessary funds because of an incorrect, wasteful way of life.
Inculturation and education
From socialization, it is necessary to distinguish between learning - the cognitive process, encompassing the acquisition of new knowledge, as well as education - the purposeful impact of socialization agents on the spiritual sphere and the behavior of the individual, and the mastering of roles - the practical mastery of the rights and duties prescribed in this status.
Socialization is a two-part process, which includes two parts: the assimilation of cultural norms and the mastering of social roles. Cultural norms we learn - through literature, television, communication with people, parental instructions and, of course, schooling. But to master social roles is possible only in practice, playing the role of a buyer in a store, a pupil at school, a worker in production. The first part is called a special term
- inculturation. The two parts have different results and levels of mastering the norms.
Due to socialization, the individual acquires such features that can be considered universal for all cultures, namely language, statuses, roles. Thanks to the inculturation, the individual acquires such traits as are inherent only in this national culture, but, above all, moral and moral values. The second component of the process of socialization -inculturation - means, including, but not exclusively, the process of education. Education is an integral part of the process of socialization and represents a purposeful transfer of ethical norms and rules of decent behavior to the older generation of the younger. It includes a system of pedagogical practices. The society has invented a lot of pedagogical practices (methods, methods, techniques) - methods of social training that allow a person to learn the rules of behavior firmly. The essence of education is the moral perfection of man, increment in cultural and social terms.
Inculturation involves the assimilation of cultural norms - traditions, customs and values - of one's own society. Closely related to it, the concept of acculturation implies a partial assimilation of cultural norms of another's society, which occurs after emigration. Assimilation indicates the complete assimilation of cultural norms of another's society, dissolution in it. In this situation, the old picture of the world and the former hierarchy of values are completely superseded by new entities. When the inner man completely changes, Alter Ego forms. The process of profound transformation of the personality, which occurs, among other things, in the transition from one religion to another, P. Bergman proposed to call an alternative. It is closely connected with two other processes
- desocialization and resocialization.
Socialization is the assimilation of universal human social norms and roles. Russian in Germany becomes a German, in England - an Englishman and so on. Especially socialization visible in young people: young English, Germans, Russians quickly find a common language and understanding. The sooner a Russian tourist begins to orient in an unfamiliar country, the deeper becomes the process of socialization and inculturation.
A superficial adaptation to the external environment that does not require radical changes in the structure of value orientations, style of thinking and lifestyle, but only behavioral models, is called adaptation. Adaptation represents an element, an integral part of socialization. When an adult comes to another country for a while as a tourist, he has to adapt to unusual traditions, norms, language. When he moves permanently to another country, he has to socialize. The ability to adapt with age fades.
Parenting is a directed process of influence of one person on another in order to impart to him the necessary rules of behavior and / or ethical norms. In contrast, socialization is not a planned, unregulated, not purposeful process of interaction of people with people or people with a material environment. Education - part or form of socialization - is limited by the number of subjects, and socialization - no.
It is possible to carry out socialization without engaging in upbringing. Parents, usually poorly educated, feed children, drink, bring money (often not all) to the family, leave for their six-hundred square meters on the weekend, arrange friendly companies and drinking bouts, but they do not engage in the purposeful education of their children. Nobody takes them to museums, reads books, does not conduct soul-saving talks, etc. There is socialization, but there is no upbringing. Apparently, there is no inculturation. Therefore, it is possible to carry out socialization. But do not have upbringing and inculturation.
Education - it is necessary to study, but learning is not anything, but only the laws of life, wisdom of life. This is a deeply moral process. Wherever there is a moral impact, there is upbringing. But not everywhere, where there is education, is education. Learning new knowledge is not education. In school, education and training are shared. Many Russian teachers are willing to take on the function of transferring new knowledge, but do not agree to take on the status of educator. Although in the Soviet school the teacher was literally charged with being a mentor of life and a teacher. Today, such facilities are obsolete.
Socialization is a continuous and spontaneous process. People constantly interact with the surrounding society. Parenting is a discrete (discontinuous) and purposeful process, since it is carried out in a certain place, at a certain time, by certain people. Training is also discrete. It occurs at a given time, in a given place under the supervision of specialists. A person can not study for life. After graduating from school, he enters the university, and after his graduation goes to work. Once the firm will send it to the refresher courses or he will have to do it at the expense of the labor exchange.
There are innumerable examples of acculturation. In the nineteenth century, Russia added to its borders many new cultural regions: Poland, the Caucasus, Central Asia. The Russians who moved there took over local customs and traditions, while retaining their own. But the local population has already become acquainted with Russian culture and has borrowed much from it. This is an example of acculturation, which was the result of territorial conquests and annexations.
The alternative of "accommodation or assimilation" is now very acute for ethnic migrants in the United States - Chinese, Japanese, Mexicans, Europeans, etc. They are becoming more and more, and so many millions of ethnic communities are forming in the country, which is a small skulk of the corresponding culture. Here you can talk all your life in your native language, completely not dissolving in American society. An example is the famous Brighton Beach area in New York, inhabited entirely by immigrants from the former USSR. Brighton Beach is a relatively remote area of New York, where many emigrants from Russia and other Soviet republics live. It is located on the Atlantic coast. Brighton Beach in the Russian translation sounds like "Brighton beach", because it is located on the Atlantic coast. He is also called "Little Odessa". Here, as before, the atmosphere of the 1970s-80s of the Soviet era, which was transferred to America, prevails. The spirit of that time is felt in the manner of dressing, talking, in posters and decorating stores. At the ocean - quay. Although it is wooden, it looks like a wave to us: a cafe, strolling couples, benches overlooking the sandy beach and the ocean. This is a cultural enclave created in America by immigrants from the Soviet Union, who do not want to fully integrate into the American system. The older generation did not learn English and did not get used to the old traditions. Naturally, parents are in favor of accommodation, i.e. partial integration into American society and preservation of Russian traditions. On the contrary, the children themselves seek assimilation, complete dissolution among Americans, the achievement of being practically no different from them. Only this way will allow fully socializing in another's society and making a successful career. The second and third generations of migrants form a new identity, representing a mixture of two or
more cultures. Migrant students and those who come to another country on contracts prefer the accommodation model of socialization instead of assimilation or isolation.
When an adult arrives in another country, he has to socialize, and not just adapt yet, because when acquiring citizenship and working in another country, a person develops new social roles and acquires and acquires new statuses, and this is the process of socialization.
Levels of consideration and Barriers of socialization
The generalization of the literature allows us to conclude that socialization over the last 150 years has been considered at eight levels:
The first level - transhistoric - anthroposociogenesis: 1) first there was the formation of man (anthropogenesis), and then people began to socialize themselves, while creating a society from the primitive herd - sociogenesis. How did they create? The first -introduced a number of rules: the taboo on incest, the murder of blood relatives, the murder of the children of the other father, the burial of the deceased, communication with spirits. Second - practical cases - the construction of houses instead of caves, the making of tools with the tools, the transfer of knowledge, the division of labor and specialization, and the norms of separation of production.
The second level is historical: two areas of analysis - 1) the change of socio-economic formations according to Marx and the emergence of socialization in the meaning of socialization, collectivization; 2) each era has its own forms and types of socialization in different countries, for example, historically vestigial must be attributed to infanticide, patriarchy, etc.
The third level - global, occurs today, its main features that have affected socialization: to study in any country, cosmopolitanism, information technologies of learning and communication
The fourth level - regional-national - the methods of socialization among the peoples of the Balkan countries clearly differ from those of the Latin American peoples, etc.
The fifth level is religious and confessional
The sixth level is the institutional, secondary socialization agents
The seventh level is small groups: reference, significant others, family, primary socialization
Eighth level - individual - change of value orientations, cognitive processes, world picture, attitudes, behavior, social action
According to different levels, the definition of socialization changes: 1 (socialization as socialization, 2) socialization as a life-time process; 3) socialization as a communication of people.
In the USSR, socialization has long been understood as the upbringing (formation, creation) of a new type of person - Homo soveticus. In the West, socialization is understood in two meanings - broad and narrow. In the broad sense (socialization) it is a lifelong process of inclusion in new social roles and training in new social norms. In the narrow sense (socializing) - as the practice of communication, meetings, collective get-togethers, joint spending time, dating, including through the Internet.
At all levels, barriers to socialization include, in particular, discrimination, sexual violence, slavery, serfdom, gender inequality, glass ceiling, disability, homelessness, boarding, divorce, incomplete family, disability, schizophrenia, social disorder (anomie), social isolation People), parents' refusal from their educational functions (drunkenness), getting children into extreme conditions (violence, including sexual and physical abuse by parents, selling into slavery), wandering and leaving the school, prison , The army, the bandit environment. This also applies to adults - illegal residence in a foreign country,
captivity, slavery, drug addiction, loss of memory and personality, participation in a totalitarian sect. Communicative barriers caused by the peculiarities of living in a boarding school are overcome by the arrival of health-improving groups of children from other boarding schools. Joint competitions, business, living conditions develop friendly relations, generate affection, correspondence and phone calls.
Living in a boarding school and orphanage is a serious barrier to socialization.
Barriers of socialization are a) personal and b) social factors. The first include deafness, dumbness, blindness, mental retardation, disability, character traits (isolation, aggression), acquired skills (slander), moral shortcomings (treachery) that prevent one individual from fully communicating with others, the child began to speak late . The resulting injury may be a barrier - physical, mental, cultural. The death of parents for children, a deep crisis, shocking scenes of violence, cultural trauma in P. Sztompka, etc.
Two-career socialization
Learning is a period of active accumulation of knowledge as a basis for acquiring qualifications in the next period (maturity). Full secondary education sets the foundation on which the building of higher education is built. School education is polyprofessional and multivariate. A graduate of a school can get a job at any job, having received a special training beforehand. A secondary school should not give a narrow-minded education. A person must choose the future profession consciously; he must learn all the pros and cons of this profession and put up with them. And from the schoolboy to demand an informed choice of profession is impossible, because. He had not tried it in himself yet. If the school gives a clearly directed professional orientation, it deprives a person of youth when he finds out what profession is right for him.
The schoolboy, having graduated from 11 classes, understands that he should choose a new launching pad, he must make a qualitative transition to the level of knowledge that the university gives. In the university there is a deepening of knowledge in some limited spectrum. That's why we can say that the basis of general vocational training is laid by the school, and not by the university. He only continues the work that she started in one of the fields of knowledge. After school, a person can go both into the sphere of physical and mental labor. But the university, whether it is technical or humanitarian, prepares only for the occupations of predominantly mental work. The university gives a limited set of knowledge, does not prepare for all professions, it is specialized.
Between the university and the school wedged the system of special education: vocational schools, technical schools, colleges. They complete the school education, improve their qualifications in the area of predominantly manual labor,
The period from 17 to 23 years - for many it is study in high school. Completion of high school education, as well as the end of secondary school, is a crisis point. It is associated with the transition from education to productive work, this is a belated entry into work (not in 17, as after school, but at age 23), as a result of which the employer receives a socially more mature and professionally more prepared workforce.
Young age - from 17 to 30 years - continued active socialization. It is allotted to "social experiments," frequent changes of places of work, the search for one's place in life, the accumulation of life experience. You learn so many norms and roles that later allows you to work with the greatest impact. Some begin to work at an early age, but all their lives have low qualifications. Others study for a long time, do not give anything to society, but only take from him (the state's expenses for training students). But later they make up for everything, since higher qualification means more labor contribution to social production. This is the socialization model optimal for post-industrial society.
Employers behave differently. Those who enter the labor life at 17 years old without a high qualification, employers offer a low-skilled occupation, and those who start working at the age of 23, the employer offers a more qualified and more paid place, as a rule, this work is more responsible, independent and Interesting, for example, the position of manager.
Socialization and adaptation
The process of adaptation is the first phase of the socialization of the individual. The second phase, interiorization, is the process of incorporating social norms and values into the inner human world. According to some sociologists, in the process of adaptation it is necessary to distinguish two sides: assimilation - adaptation of the situation through changing conditions to a person, his individual style of mental activity and accommodation - the adaptation of a person to a changing situation through the restructuring of the thinking style. As a result of assimilation, members of one ethnic group lose their culture and acquire the culture of another people with whom they are in direct contact. This process can occur spontaneously, and can be managed administratively. For example, during the years of Soviet power, Russians and Latvians lived side by side and no one thought about the cultural dissolution of one people in another. After the collapse of the Soviet Union, the Russians turned into a national minority, and they were forced to be expelled from the country, and the remainder to assimilate such a policy contradicts the international norms that the European Union adheres to, where Latvia aspires to join, and Russia that tries to protect the rights of the Russian-speaking population. The EU and Russia advocate a different strategy, namely accommodation, which presupposes the preservation of the national and cultural identity of each people, respect for their rights and peaceful coexistence. Otherwise, such a policy is called peaceful integration of two peoples into a single community. This is the most humane way of adapting large social groups to the changed political conditions in the 1990s.
Adaptation represents an element of the overall process of socialization. It is not right to identify them. They mean different things. Socialization begins with childhood, when a person as a person is not formed. Adaptations are only subjected to ready-made systems-physical or social. Adapting to a new climate or collective takes place in the existing person. Professional adaptation in the industry includes selection, training, assessment of personal and business qualities of employees.
When moving from a centralized economy to a market economy, it is necessary to adapt enterprises and their employees to the market environment and to market relations. The higher the adaptation measure, the more reliable the system, the higher the degree of its survival. Sociologists found that, contrary to expectations, low adaptation to market conditions, to which Russia moved in the late 80's, is typical for the most active age - from 30 to 50 years. Solving this riddle, scientists came to the conclusion that people under 30 years in the social plan are more mobile, less dependent on the existing way of life, habits and stereotypes, as well as from the position and profession. Many parents still care for that, and they are the strongest agent of socialization. People over 50 years old easily adapted because by that time they already had adult children who could take care of themselves, accumulated certain material values (apartment, cottage, dwelling, car), there was a stable social position (a good profession or a high position ). All this facilitated entry into the market. On the contrary, a person in 30-50 years is concerned with how to establish themselves in the chosen profession, make a career, how to provide children and put them on their feet, how to solve the housing problem.
The ability to adapt, as well as to socialization, fades with age. American sociologists have established that, say an English professor (that is, a person who speaks the same
language as Americans) can live in the US for 5-10 years or more, but he will never become an American, although he speaks the same language and has a very similar culture. A semi-literate son of Italian émigrés, speaking with a strong Sicilian accent, by the age of 10, «learns to be an American" and will not be different from American peers. The professor behaves as an Englishman, and the boy - as an American. Adaptation in the first case is more difficult, although it is possible, but complete socialization is unlikely to come. In one case, only adaptation takes place, and in the second - complete socialization.
On the eve of the Second World War, Georges Friedman, who spent most of his life in Russia, studied the extent to which ethno-cultural (national) traits affect the responses of respondents in the survey. He found that Swedes and Americans are mostly inclined to assess the "plus" part of the scale, and Jews and Poles gravitate toward the negative pole: complain about this and this. Russians (living much worse than Swedes or Americans) are mostly optimistic: according to the mentality of the sufferers who never lived well and do not expect a better future. And that's what happened to them. On the eve of the 1998 default, employees of the Institute of Sociology of the Russian Academy of Sciences (headed by V.A. Yadov) interviewed Poles and Russians about how they had undergone economic reforms - the transition from socialism to capitalism. As we know, we have chosen a gradual transition, in Poland - shock therapy. It turned out that the Poles easily suffered their "shock", rather than we - slow reforms. Reflecting on this paradox, V.A. Yadov believes that there are several reasons for this, including the solidarity of society: all Poles - upper and lower - are oriented to the West and want to live there; in Russia, the tops are directed to Europe, and the bottom is not. What turns out - patience is worse than envy [27]. In fact, Russians are more patient with life's troubles, Poles, according to J. Friedman, are more envious of the prosperous nations, let us say to the same Germans. The first want to live their minds and go their own way, the latter all take over from their neighbors and try to catch up with them quickly.
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