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20Когнитивные и прагматические аспекты заимствования в современном итальянском языке
Соколова Алла Германовна,
кандидат технических наук, доцент, доцент кафедры иностранных языков и профессиональной коммуникации, Национальный исследовательский Московский государственный строительный университет E-mail: as.falconi@yandex.ru
Архипов Александр Владимирович,
кандидат географических наук, доцент, доцент кафедры иностранных языков и профессиональной коммуникации, Национальный исследовательский Московский государственный строительный университет E-mail: artan911@mail.ru
В современном итальянском обществе нарастает беспокойство по поводу преобладания заимствований в современном итальянском языке, в частности в социальных сетях, проявляющееся нарастающей нетерпимостью к англицизмам, лавинообразно влияющее на самобытность итальянского языка. В данной статье рассмотрены когнитивные и прагматические аспекты англоязычных заимствований в современном итальянском языке на примере медиа-текстов. Авторы статьи провели анализ процесса диффузии и продемонстрировали различные функции инноваций. В целом их можно анализировать как эвфемистические или дисфемистические выражения, в то время как некоторые выражения мотивированы желанием казаться творческими и изобретательными. Структурная маркировка «инозвучных» слов или неродных структурных паттернов может усилить коммуникативный эффект за счет ссылки на престиж исходного языка. Таким образом, из-за престижа английского языка в технической сфере использование англицизмов в технической области предполагает технически более сложный продукт, чем альтернативные выражения.
Ключевые слова: заимствования, англицизм, эвфемизм, дис-фемизм, лексический состав, прагматика.
Introduction
There is a growing concern in the modern Italian society about the prevalence of loan words in the present-day Italian language, in particular social networks, showing increasing intolerance to Anglicisms, the avalanche affecting the identity of the Italian language. The Italian encyclopedia of Science, Letters and Arts Treccani has published the article under the title "Il Bel Paese dove l'OK suona" (En. "The Beautiful country where OK could be heard") where the various opinions of the people had been collected in the form of an interview. The following questions had been asked to the interviewees: "Is borrowing really harmful for a language? Is it necessary for linguists to build barriers between languages and to fortify the borders? Is it worth introducing some language filters? What kind of authority could be exercised in this aspect?"
Theoretical background of the research
The positions expressed by the authors of the article, leading scholars, linguists and writers, were divided on the issue that led to rather interesting results and discussion [1 ]. For instance, a poet and novelist, the so-called "Romanian observer" Mihai Mircea Butcovan, residing in Italy since 1991 and publishing his works in Italian language, describes his participation in an Italian scientific conference filled with the borrowed terms, such as career coaching and ability, education and goal, convention and exciting, administration and briefing, question and happiness. Butcovan doubts that "I'esercito di parole inglesi sia liberatore" (En. "The intervention of English borrowed words could hardly be regarded as the Salvation Army"). However, he gives credit to significance of English language and its dominating position as lingua franca in the modern globalized world but upholds the view of its moderate and reasonable use. Cesare Marchi shares his opinion stating that "Siamo dei miliardari che chiedono ielemosina all'estero" (En. "We are multimillionaires living by alms from abroad").
Licia Corbolante, a linguist and translator, the author of the blog Termonologia etc., speaks about the official or institutional use of the so-called inglesorum [2]. Steven Pinker, an experimental psychologist, who conducts research in visual cognition, psycholinguis-tics, and social relations, describes the problem of knowledge like a precondition, in other words "se lo so io, anche gli altri devono saperlo" (En. "If I know this, the others should know this as well'). For example, only the ignorant person would shorten spending review to just spending that makes no sense to a native English speaker.
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According to the opinion of Machiavelli, along with appearance of a new phenomenon, there emerges a new word describing it. For organizations, the choice of the Anglicisms's use is usually underpinned by linguistic knowledge and the contact of cultures. The mission of the Ministry of Education, University and Research (in Italian: Ministero dell'Istruzione, dell'Univer-sita e della Ricerca or MIUR), Corbolante emphasizes, is to promote the formation of Italian terminology. The linguist and blogger Michele Cortelazzo makes a point that linguists have been observing the diffusion of borrowed words with distant neutrality throughout decades when the overall number of registered cases had remained rather insignificant (4% according to Gradit (Grande dizionario italiano del'uso)) [3]. However, the things started to change between 1990 and 2003, when the Italian language adopted more than 1,400 loan words, i.e. about the one third of all the borrowings ever occurred throughout the history of the Italian language. Now, there is an impression of the growing tendency of the phenomenon. At the same time, public intolerance is also on the rise. According to Cortelazzo, the acquired habit of politicians to use Anglicisms in their speech without any urgent necessity is nothing else but the pragmatic means of manipulating public opinion.
For this reason, the Accademia della Crusca (generally abbreviated as La Crusca), a Florence-based society of scholars of Italian linguists and philology, has established the group called Incipit. The mission of this group is to serve Italian-speaking community offering Italian alternatives to the most popular borrowings used by the people in power, sometimes due to pure pigritude.
The linguist Roberta D'Alessandro expresses an opposing opinion in her letter addressed to the minister Stefania Giannini (served as Minister of Education, Universities and Research from 2014 until 2016): "The battle against Anglicisms is lost at the very beginning as the language itself cannot give directions or put any constrains. Italian language is not in danger: when an English word is introduced into Italian language, it is almost immediately adjusted to Italian grammar and becomes the part of Italian corpus".
When Anglophiles complain about the distortion of English language by the Italians, Italianists are trying hard to find Italian equivalents to the borrowings, though not always perfectly conforming. That means the need for English borrowings exists. From Machia-velli's perspective, introduction of a new phenomenon brings along the term describing it. However, the new word or term becomes "ours" as soon as it contaminates the language and is imported into it.
From the other hand, analyzing the language of the most popular and widely read Italian novelists, one can figure out that Niccolo Ammaniti, Paolo Giordano, Andrea De Carlo, Edoardo Nesi, Silvia Avallone, Antonio Pennacchi, Francesco Piccolo, Melania Mazzuc-5 co, Elena Ferrante, Nicola Lagioia, Fabio Genovesi, g Tiziano Scarpa, Giordano Meacci, Antonio Manzini £ hardly ever use Anglicisms in their creations. There ° are few exceptions, e.g. Alessandro Piperno, Wal-1 ter Siti, Mauro Covacich and Sandro Veronesi, who
demonstrate their skillful use of Anglicisms with the purpose of expressive function.
The linguist Valeria Della Valle points out that having researched the novel of some modern Italian authors she came to a quite encouraging conclusion. In the world of literature, the Italians use far less Anglicisms if compared with 12-14 per cent of English borrowings in the language of mass media, with the notable leap of the use frequency during the last 3-4 years.
Giovanni Iamartino, the historian of language, presumes that loan words enrich the vocabulary of a recipient language. He strongly believes that there is no practical use of linguistic purism and the languages that are not mixed or blended simply do not exist. Even autarkic fascism appealing to boycott English terms has used the word adopted... from English language (It. boicottare - En. to boycott). At the same time, Iamartino adds that all Italian speakers should take a critical position; rather than be biased against the borrowings, they should be attentive to distinguish them in speech. "Il prestito lessicale e un dono, ma la bancarotta linguistica e un rischio da evitare" (En. "Lexical borrowing is a gift, but linguistic failure is the risk to be avoided').
The linguist Salvatore Claudio Sgroi underlines that linguistic borrowings enrich a recipient language: the idea of the use of Anglicisms must not be rejected for the sake of the abstract "fidelity to a language", even if the equivalent Italian terms do exist. The English alternative might sound more prestigious, elegant and fascinating. The role to take decisions on linguistic use of the words should not be given to so-called "centers of authority" (not event to the most brilliant linguists). The imposed constrains and limitations must be clear to reasonable. The English language is of utmost importance in the modern world and must be studied as a part of school or university curriculum. Nevertheless, to use English as lingua veicolare (in other words: to teach all subjects in English only) could be regarded as "cultural suicide"). According to Sgroi, school-going children should be encouraged to learn English by speaking it rather than by binge studying the rules from the textbooks.
Another scholar, Daniele Scarampi, who teaches literature in high school and specializes in didactics, states that temptation to use Anglicisms, even those absolutely unnecessary ones, still remains quite strong. Regardless this, young students find English difficult, study it in the mnemonic manner, get frustrated with pronunciation, and prefer to stay safe in a comfort zone of the language they belong to. Scara-mpi believes that for students there actually exist two English languages: the former is the language imprisoned in textbooks and is of no interest to students; the latter is a modern global language of contemporary music and sport, enticing within the meaning of the terms used. Those new words are rarely understood fully, used mostly intuitively or sometimes ignored. In order to change things, school should motivate students to learn English by speaking it rather than force them studying grammar and pronunciation rules from the books.
This is the aspect, which surprise the most: the principal impact of all linguistic interventions is pragmatic but non-ideological one. The curious fact: trying to find more or less benevolent opinions about the use of borrowings, from one side we come across an ironic Romanian (Butcovan) residing in Italy, from other side - a vibrant Italian linguist D'Alessandro who lives in the Netherlands.
Thus, returning to the question about the potential danger of the English language's invasion, two figures should be mentioned: 12-14 per cent of Anglicisms in the languages of journalists (Della Valle) and one third of borrowings adopted by the Italian languages between 1990 and 2003 (Cortelazzo). What has happened after 2003? What is the situation of today?
Results and discussion
Pragmatic aspects and motives of borrowing A general factor motivating the insertion of lexical alternatives, that is, a factor motivating borrowings, is the aspect of creating or increasing variation of expression. The published studies of Anglicisms have shown that ample variety of the examples illustrate the relative brevity of the borrowed units in comparison with possible recipient language alternatives, e.g. lockdown (English) vs. autoisolamento (Italian), email (English) vs. la posta elettronica (Italian), weekend (English) vs. fine settimana (Italian), etc.
Nevertheless, the results of this observation cannot be applied to all Anglicisms, i.e. there exist cases where the recipient language alternative is shorter than the borrowed Anglicism, or of similar length. Evaluation of potential communicative benefit is based on a comparison of the borrowed lexical items and potential translations or recipient language alternatives.
For the cases when the loanword will function as a catachrestic innovation, the length of the paraphrase may affect its conventionalism and facilitate the diffusion of the loanword.
In addition, there are borrowings by analogical innovation to a source language model, i.e. where the target and source concepts are semantically related by metaphorical similarity. This could be related to innovations by word formation (e.g. Italian grattacielo in analogy to English skyscraper) or by semantic change. Because of politics, one can find the abundance of this type of changes in Italian language, for example:
- handicappato (English handicapped) becomes disabile (English disabled);
- colf (English domestic helper) becomes coadiu-vante domestica (English housekeeper).
Italians are conscious about this issue, and referring to the word «gay» to say homosexual - this word in Italian sounds pretty politically correct though, which is not true for lesbica (English lesbian), which sounds quite unpolite. So, the words gay or omosessuale, applicable for both men and women, are very common.
This also becomes visible for the lexical innovations designating the concept. Here, a strong dynamic potential is observed. The English designations, for example, make redundant, fire, dismiss, displace,
sack, discard, eject, etc. demonstrate a lexical richness deriving from the speaker's wish to introduce creative ways of this concept designation. But the new introduced expressions tend to lose their communicative strength and pragmatic effect as soon as they get more profoundly diffused.
...La casa editrice ha replicato con una «motion to dismiss», sostenendo che l'arbitrato di Milano e l'uni-co foro competente...(La Stampa, February 22, 2019)
En. ... The editing house has replied with the "motion to dismiss" supporting that the Arbitrage of Milan is the competent court...
The diffusion process demonstrates different functions of the innovations, i.e. they can be generally analyzed as euphemistic or dysphemistic expressions whereas some expressions are motivated by a desire to appear as creative and inventive. In its turn, it leads to euphemism, dysphemism, playfulness.
Euphemism and dysphemism
This is a 'classical' group of innovation in lexis, namely euphemisms and dysphemisms [4]. While the former is motivated by a speaker's wish to find a more polite or smooth way to express a given content, the latter is aiming to express the given content in a potentially offensive or an unusually drastic way [5].
For example, a disguising function for the use of callgirl (English) instead of la prostituta (Italian). The communicative advantage of the Anglicism in this case lies in its being not only less semantically transparent, but also less conventionalized than the equivalent, being strongly linked to the designated concept.
... Diffuse le registrazioni della «callgirl» con Berlusconi. (La Stampa, July 19, 2019)
En: . The records involving Berlusconi and the callgirl are numerous.
For this lexical innovation, the readership may thus less instantly identify the exact concept. Nevertheless, this potential advantage of loanwords will disappear when the speakers of the recipient language have an advanced knowledge of the source language.
Lexical borrowings functioning as euphemisms are non-catachrestic, as the speaker selects a cognitively more costly and less direct alternative if compared to the usual concept designation.
The same principal is applied for dysphemisms that are frequently used to designate face-threatening content or taboo concepts. However, they play on taboos differently. They are motivated by conveying a negative or offensive image, commonly by selecting a semantically transparent word formation or semantic innovation. Euphemistic loanwords need not be euphemistic in the source language, while dysphemistic ones frequently have a similar effect, already present in the source language (the example of English bitch in most contexts of use).
...D'altronde dietro il progetto c'e Freak & Chic, casa di produzione milanese che si divide tra la musica di Immanuel Casto e Romina Falconi e progetti legati al mondo della moda e dei giochi da tavolo a tema «ironico ed erotico» come Squillo o Witch&Bitch. (La Stampa, November 17, 2018)
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En: Behind the project, there is Freak&Chic, production studio based in Milan, which deals with music of Immanuel Casto and Romina Falconi as well as the projects related to fashion and board games in "ironic and erotic' way like Squillo or Witch&Bitch.
To sum up, euphemisms motivate borrowing of more general words, whereas dysphemism tend to apply for the words of more limited importance. Along with that, the attitude of the recipient language speakers towards the source language is of paramount importance when defining the communicative value, as a euphemistic effect can only be achieved if the source language is of a certain prestige.
Nevertheless, further research is required to identify and test the crosslinguistic validity of the given observations, especially by comparing scenarios of language contact in various historical and cultural contexts. This could be seen as a line of further scientific research of the topic.
When euphemisms and dysphemisms are communicatively successful and diffused in the speech of the community, they tend to undergo semantic change and become the unmarked option that allows expressing a given concept. Loanwords lend themselves to euphemistic use precisely due to common unmotivated character of the recipient language (the example of borrowing the English word Striptease compared to Italian Spogliarello, formed from the verb spogliarsi -'to undress').
As opposed to euphemisms, the spread of dysphemisms is constrained due to their unmotivated-ness in the recipient language.
Playfulness
Playfulness also motivates linguistic innovation, as shown in the work of Hans Galinsky [6]. Play is considered as inherently social notion, involving an interaction between a speaker and a hearer [7]. Two basic scenarios could be identified for functioning of speakers and hearers. The first one when the speaker poses of sort of riddle to the hearer by the unusual way of expressing his thought. If the hearer manages to decode the riddle, this creates a positive in-group effect for both, the speaker and the hearer, involved in a playful linguistic exchange. This type of interaction is also related to predominantly in-group aimed humor. Another possible outcome is that the hearer fails to solve the riddle and becomes excluded from the game, e.g. in cases based on irony, puns, play on words, etc.
Here, there are few examples taken from the advertising published in Italian mass media:
1. Gamma Easy - oggi e facile.
En. Gamma Easy - today it is easy (the advertisement of the car model, play on words 'easy' = 'facile').
2. Il soul levante.
En. The oriental soul (the article about the oriental music; 'soul' could be pronounced as 'sol', in Italian, 5 which means 'the sun'). o 3. Non e un master e un must.
En. Not a master but a must (the advertisement S of the private school, assonance of the words 'master' and 'must').
4. Siate logici, siate Logan.
En. If you are logical, buy Logan (the advertisement of electronic appliances, alliteration).
5. Air-one.
En. Air-one (the name of the airline company; the English term, when pronounced in Italian, means 'heron').
Galinsky observes that humorous effects might be achieved by unusually weak loanword integration, i.e. by a parody of the source culture and language, or by a parody of the speakers of recipient language following the source language as close as possible. These playful uses of loanwords borrowed from English into Italian mainly concerns the phonetic level, when a pronunciation of loanwords imitates the source language pronunciation instead of the recipient language pronunciation. Speaking of spelling, in contrast, weak loanword integration is observed for recent borrowings from English into Italian, as recent borrowings are mostly introduced in their original spelling, with possibility of some minor changes.
In the following examples, the levels of pronunciation and spelling can both be concerned. Phonetic assimilation takes the most insignificant part in this phenomenon as many English phonemes are pronounced in a similar manner to Italian ones, for example [«] > [e] (snack), [«] > [a] (fan, manager); [a] > [a] (fast food, transfer). The consonant s in the beginning of the word preceding voiced consonant is always vocalized snowboard ['znobord], slogan ['zlogan]. Another specific feature of Italian language phonetics is the absence of reduction, therefore usually reduced vowels and consonants (phonemes expressed by the letters r, ng, e) are pronounced very clearly, e.g. boarding pass ['bording], tarzaning ['tardzaning]. Some Anglicisms retain their spelling but they are to be read according to the Italian pronunciation rules, i.e. reception [re'tjepjon], receptionist [re'tjepjonist]. Italian letter h does not correspond to any sound, and this rule is also applied to the borrowed words: hotel [o'tell, hostess ['ostes].
'Distortions' of the established orthography can for instance be demonstrated on the following examples. In the studied materials, only two cases in orthographic assimilation have been identified. Mountain bike has been substituted by mountain byke.
In the TV commercial of the 'All inclusive' tariff, when the TV-presenter suggest using «Scelga olin-clusiv», he puts the stress is on the second syllable. Then a male voice on the background gives comments on the tariff calling it «olinclusiv» (the stress is on the third syllable). Mostly likely, advertisers have chosen the form with the third syllable stressed due to hyper-correction, as both in English inclusive /in'clu: siv/ and in Italian inclusivo the stress in on the second syllable from the word end [8].
To sum up, relative markedness has an impact on special pragmatic effects conveyed by the linguistic items, and they may undergo diachronic change.
It is worth mentioning that loanwords, borrowed along with the new concepts and objects, apart from their novelty, do not convey special pragmatic effects.
Their introduction and diffusion into the recipient language is motivated by their designation function instead; as mentioned by Galinsky (1967), the second effect of Anglicisms is to establish or enhance precision, to create exact labels for the new concepts. This seems very plausible for the loanwords with no real lexical alternative in the recipient language, so called lacunas. Such borrowings could only be substituted by a longer paraphrase that is not desirable.
Though the formula 'new word - new concept' is intuitively very clear, from the methodological point it is not straightforward whether a certain borrowing performs as a supplementary designation for an existing concept, or whether the concept designated is 'new'. In fact, there exists the possibility of semantic changes, which leads to the source and recipient language expressions being not synonymous.
The researchers engaged in contact linguistics, a critical investigation of grammatical structures when bilingual speakers use two or more languages in the same clause, widely accepted Haugen's distinction of importation and substitution processes. In his studies (1950, 1956), Haugen developed one of the most comprehensive taxonomies of borrowings having based his analysis on the speech of Norwegian immigrants into the United States. The principal idea of his theoretical framework is that borrowing occurs as the result of joint action of two mechanisms: importation, when a foreign word is reproduced in a receptor language so that it could be easily traced back to its origin and identified with the model; and on the other hand, substitution, which implies the replacement of some morphemes in the source language by the receptor language ones, in the effort to integrate it into the language structure.
Depending on the various combinations of both processes, the outcomes can range from foreign forms being adapted together with their meanings, to the meanings that enter a language on their own. To sum up, Haugen's taxonomy outlines two main categories, such as loan words and loan shifts. Loan shift, as defined by the Merriam-Webster dictionary, is a change in the word meaning under the influence of another language and a word that has undergone such a change in meaning.
Galinsky shows that the use of Anglicisms can also be motivated by speaker's strategies of exoticiza-tion, i.e. providing local color choosing loanwords or pseudo-loans (false Anglicisms). Thus, in this sense, catachrestic innovations are not pragmatically neutral.
False Anglicism is a word or idiom recognizably English in spelling, pronunciation or morphology, accepted by the receptor language despite its non-existence in English or its use with a different meaning in English. These are words or phrases inspired by English language but they would not be used in a native variety of English because in the recipient language, e.g. Italian, a new meaning was added to it. For instance, 'recordman' meaning 'record holderJ, 'zona living' meaning literally 'living zone', that is often used to talk about open plan living room/kitchen combos, 'stage' meaning 'work experience', 'beaut/ meaning
'washbag', 'feeling' meaning 'chemistry/rapport', and 'mission critic' instead of 'mission critical'.
The example of a false Anglicism that has lost all English traces is the word 'golf. Its derivatives in Italian such as 'golfetto', 'golfino', 'golfone' should not be considered as false Anglicisms since false Anglicisms may only be adapted in pronunciation in order to conform to the Italian phonological system. These words were coined by means of adding Italian suffixes.
Catachrestic reinterpretation can be widely exploited in the domain of advertising for marketing strategies. The purpose is the stress the novelty of a particular produce, i.e. when the product is designated by a new lexical unit, the hearer assumes that the new word corresponds to a new object, that is, a cutting edge and probably improved product.
For instance, the new expressions 'Flip-Flops' and 'Novel foods' introduced in Italian language suggest that the referents are somehow different from what was traditionally designated by the expressions 'Chi-abatte' (or 'Pianelle') and 'Alimenti innovativi', correspondingly.
...Altra supermodel da anni impegnata nel fashion design e la brasiliana Gisele Bundchen, che ha tras-posto il suo amore per l'ecologia e per l'ambiente nelle graziose e colorate flip flops Ipanema, mentre e fresca di 2011 la collaborazione della Venere Nera con il marchio Fiorucci. (La Stampa, July 19, 2019)
En. Another supermodel involved in the fashion design for many years is Brasilian Gisele Bundchen, who transferred her passion for ecology and environment into designing the gracious and colourful flip flops Ip-anema created in 2011 in collaboration of Venere Nera with the Fiorucci brand.
For the case of Flip-Flops, the new designation comprises relatively close units and shows the example of playfulness that dwell upon sound similarities. At the same time, as additional factor, semantic transparency intervenes, i.e. the new designation is non-transparent semantically and leaves open the chance to include this item into the category of high-fashion footwear, which seems hardly conceivable for Chiabatte.
...Per non parlare dei cosiddetti "novel food": i cibi a base di insetti, fonte di proteine piu sostenibili grazie al minor impatto ambientale e all'alto valore nutrizion-ale, sono stati appena sdoganati dalla European Food Safety Authority. (La Repubblica, January 21, 2021)
En. ... Not speaking of the so-called 'novel food': insect-based food, rich of proteins, highly nutritional, and more sustainable due to lower environmental impact, that have received custom clearance from the European Food Safety Authority.
Conclusions
In that sense, the function of naming can also have a pragmatic dimension. The structural markedness of 'foreign-sounding' words or non-native structural patterns can add to the communicative effect by means of alluding to the source language prestige. Thus, due to the prestige of English in the technical sphere, the use of Anglicisms in the technical domain suggest a tech-
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nically more sophisticated product than the alternative expressions.
COGNITIVE AND PRAGMATIC ASPECTS OF BORROWING IN MODERN ITALIAN LANGUAGE
Sokolova A.G., Arkhipov A.A.
National Research Moscow State University of Civil Engineering
This article examines the cognitive and pragmatic aspects of English-language loanwords in modern Italian on the example of media texts. The authors of the article analyzed the process of diffusion and demonstrated the different functions of the innovations. In general, they can be analyzed as euphemistic or dysphemistic expressions, while some expressions are motivated by the desire to appear creative and inventive. The structural marking of «foreign-sounding» words or non-native structural patterns can enhance the communicative effect, indicating the prestige of the source language.
Keywords: borrowings, Anglicism, euphemism, dysphemism, lexis, pragmatics.
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