CC BY
14UDK 663.911.13(669)
Stavropol Region
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Usman Zainab A., Olagunju Kehinde O.
COCOA PRODUCTION AND QUALITY IN NIGERIA: AN ANALYSIS OF PRE AND POST-LIBERALIZATION EFFECT
Abstract:
The Nigerian cocoa industry has undergone the wave of policy effects which has impacted its output, and so far determined its position among prominent world cocoa producers and also once determined the faith of Nigeria as an agrarian economy in the 60s and 70s period. This study reviewed the policy characteristics and effects in the cocoa industry in Nigeria and among prominent cocoa producing countries. This was divided into pre-liberalization and post-liberlization era. The Ivorian and Indonesian system due to their position in world cocoa production, featured as a case study. It was discovered that their policy systems were not so much a super-duper, they also have vagaries of defects in their policy system, and thus did not rule out the Nigerian fully liberalized policy as bad, but was suf-
ficient enough to point out the belligerent attitude of the Nigerian government towards creating the basic structures for a free market system to survive. The liberalized system is however characterized with decreasing output, poor quality, poor infrastructural facilities, poor market information, wider gap between the farmers and the market, too many middle men in the supply chain, increasing farmers' vulnerabilities to middlemen amongst others. To basically meet the aim of liberalization, it was recommended that cocoa farmers should be empowered with information (production and marketing), inputs and infrastructures among others of which government has a cogent role to play.
Key words: Cocoa, Cocoa production, Cocoa Quality, Pre-liberalization, Post liberalization, Nigeria.
Zainab Usman -
PhD Candidate. Co-Convener, Oxford Uni China-Africa Network E-mail: zainabusman.wordpress.com
Kehinde Olagunju O. -
Szent István University, Godollo
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Cocoa and its Importance
Cocoa(Theobroma cacao), from the Genus The-obroma and family Stericuliacea, originated from the Amazon basin and are cultivated in more than forty countries around the world on estimated land areas of 3.6 million hectares and over 3 million tonnes of dried beans annually (deZaan cocoa manual, 2008). Africa produced 72 % (2.942 million tonnes) of the world cocoa which forms the largest share, while Latin, Asia
Oceania accounted for 16 % (666,000 tonnes) and 12 % (496,000 tonnes) respectively (ICCO, 2014). West and central Africa are responsible for 70 % of world cocoa with Indonesia as the highest (13 %) outside the African continent (ICCO, 2007). A larger percentage of cocoa production is from West Africa, of which Cote D'ivoire holds the ace as the highest producer of cocoa in the region, continent and the world.
Major cocoa producing countries in the world include-Cote D'ivoire (39 %), Ghana (21.4 %), Nigeria (6.3 %), Brazil (5.3 %) Cameroun (5.2 %) and Indonesia (17.0 %) (FAO, 2010). Others include Ecuador, Dominican republic, and Malaysia contribute 3.5 %, 1.4 %, 1.3 % of the total world cocoa output respectively (Joseph and Adewale, 2013). The importance of cocoa to the world as a whole cannot be overemphasized as 46 % is consumed in Europe, 14 % and 10 % by North and Latin America respectively, while Africa consumes 4 % of the apparent consumption in 2011/2012 cocoa season (ICCO Quarterly bulletin of Cocoa Statistics).Cocoa is one of the major agricultural cash crop produced in Nigeria and had once left a landmark in the Nigeria's agricultural industry as a major source of income before the discovery of crude oil and it still reckons to the country's Agricultur-
al sector as the highest foreign exchange earner (Oluy-ole, 2009, Adegeye 1996). Despite the effect of crude oil discovery on the country's agricultural sector, cocoa still maintains the second most valued export produce after petroleum and the most valued non-oil export produce (Adeniyi and Ogunsola, 2014). Nigeria is currently the fourth and third largest cocoa producer in the World and in Africa respectively (FAO, 2010). She upholds the largest market economy status after the rebasing of its GDP in 2014, but in reality the recent depreciation in the value of its naira due to the price fall in crude oil price is presently an eminent warning of looming economic problems such as increasing food insecurity, unemployment rate amongst others. The country's cocoa sector is not left out in the wave of poor investment, poor practices and policy effects. Notwithstanding, cocoa could still serve as a messiah like the case of the Indonesian cocoa. It is thus important to state the need for an urgent review of the country's cocoa sector policy and government intervention at the farm level.
1.2 Overview of Cocoa Production and Quality in Nigeria
In Nigeria, like many other cocoa producing countries, cocoa is a non-oil export crop, produced by small-holder farmers and serves as a means of livelihood to millions of her populace who are cocoa farmers, local buying agents, exporters and processors. The trend of cocoa production in Nigeria is widely attributed to pre and post oil boom, because of its characteristics as a one-time mainstay of the economy with an immense contribution in the 1960s and 1970s (Adeyeye, C. T., 2011, A. E. Oguntade, 2010). The peak of production was recorded at 308,000 tonnes in early seventies putting the country among
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the highest cocoa producers, it recorded a decline in early 1980s to 155,000 tonnes (Adeyeye C. T. 2011) and continually to 140,000 tonnes in 1983 (FAO-STAT, 2015). The pre-oil boom cocoa era also recorded Nigeria as the second largest producer of cocoa, this contributed to the growth rate of agriculture from 8-10 % per annum, it also contributed to the country's development as the main foreign exchange earner (Ayinde et al, 2012).
In cocoa export market, quality is key to the export value of cocoa beans and a country's premium earnings. Quality in cocoa is defined as a measure of the superiority of the dried beans and the percentage of high grade beans with the intended flavor profile; it also includes presence of low levels of foreign material, proper fermentation, appropriate humidity levels, low levels of diseased and insect damaged beans and low levels of free fatty acids. Quality parameters in physical and flavor quality parameters include bean size, waste foreign material, moisture content, broken beans, uniformity, insect and rodent infections, number of defects, degree of fermentation, the flavor quality as a result of good fermentation and drying of the beans (deZaan 2008. Other quality characteristics include flavor profile, varietal selection, and certifications such as organic certification on demand by certain markets (Fair trade International; 2013).
Policy changes effect in cocoa producing countries is evident in their production, marketing and quality of cocoa beans and a major factor for policy changes is the volatility nature of cocoa price in the export market. The cocoa industry in Nigeria has witnessed policy changes from the pure state control of its exportation to a free-market affair, and thus the cocoa era can be discussed based on its pre- and post-liberalization periods. The State control (pre-liberalization) era in Nigeria's cocoa industry featured the sole exporta-
tion, price and quality control by the monopoly Nigeria Cocoa Board (NCB) which had its selected crop of licensed cocoa buying agents and also (A.E Ogunta-de 2010). This era though recorded increased cocoa production also documented poor incentives to producers, corruption and inefficiency, afurther decrease in the early eighties led to the introduction of the Structural Adjustment Policy in 1986, it was an era opened to private exporters where the forces of supply and demand determines the price. Till date, post liberalization has further worsen cocoa beans quality and not added to increasing production and the new price was the major concerns of stakeholders (Adeyeye C.T, 2011) creating a wider gap between the farmer and the export market (Olajide and Adewoye, 2012), a poor or no input supply and poor extension services since the government is no longer involved (Adeyeye C.T 2011, Olajide and Adewoye, 2012). Apart from policy problems, the cocoa industry in Nigeria is subjected to old trees stock liable to persisting diseases and insects attack, poor management practices, poor extension services among others (A.E. Ogunta-de, 2010). All these problems persisted and aggravated at post-liberalization. Of concern is the increasing middle men activities in the cocoa supply chain, thus creating a wider gap between the small holder farmers and the export market. Coupled with this, major cocoa producing zones lacks infrastructural facilities to convey produce from their farms; most cocoa farmers are left at mercies of local buying agents in a bid to prevent further defects to cocoa beans which out-rightly means decreasing income for farmers. The importance of quality in the cocoa industry in Nigeria is more pronounced in post-liberalization as farmers gets the bunch of the cut in the worth of their produce, this has continuously reflect on the low investment in cocoa production and quality management.
1600 1400 1200 1000 800 600 400 200 0
2010/2011 2011/2012 2012/2013
Figure 1 - cocoa production in tonnes between 2010 and 2013
Source: www.statista.com. Authors' own editing, 2015
2.0 STRUCTURE OF PRE AND POST-LIBERALIZATION SYSTEM
2.1 Structure of the Pre-liberalization system
The characteristic of cocoa sub-sector in the early years was the use of marketing boards and the caisse system (Gilbert 2009). The significant difference between the two is that while the former is in total control
of the government which Gilbert 2009 described as the British monopoly-monopsony system, the caisse system still accommodates the presence of private individuals but with the regulations solely owned and controlled by the government. While the marketing board was practiced in Nigeria and Ghana, the caisse system operated in Cote D'ivoire. In Ghana, the cocoa marketing board was established in 1947 and was saddled with
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the responsibility of protecting farmers from the volatile nature of cocoa price (GAIN, 2012). Among its other functions was price fixing, quality control, supply of input, give allowance to license buying agent to cover transportation and procurement costs (Strykeref al, 1990). The board further contributed to community development programmes funded from surplus earnings from cocoa. Apparently, the Ghana COCOBOD was besotted with inefficiency and corruption which led to the decrease in cocoa production from 591,000 tons in 1964 to 159,000 in 1983 and decrease in producer share in free on board prices to as low as 21 percent (IFPRI, 2012). The Nigeria cocoa industry also witnessed the state control through the marketing board prior to the Structural Adjustment Policy in 1986. It was introduced in 1947, like other marketing boards under state control; its aim was to protect farmers from the volatile nature of cocoa prices in world market (Joshua, 2012). To ensure this, cocoa producers were given prices; it also appoints its license buying agent which could be individuals group or cooperative.In the cause of balancing prices, producers receive prices far below world prices with high taxes, this was a disincentive to increasing production , also prominent was inefficiency and corruption in the board which led to its scrapping in 1986 (Joshua 2014, A.E Oguntade, 2010, Anti-Slavery international, 2004). The Ivorian and Cam-eroonians Cocoa sector earlier experienced the caisse system (Caisse de Stabilisation et duSoutien des Prix des Produits Agricoles-Caistab). The caisse system although was devoid of total control of cocoa produce. It only focused on price stabilization and costs for farmers and exporters through the use of stabilization funds (Anti-Slavery International, 2004).
2.2 Structure of Post-liberalization System: Partial and Full Liberalized System
It is of noteworthy to state that despite the pressure of the Ghana COCOBOD, its cocoa industry never succumbed to full price liberalization of its sector and has thus been known to enjoy high premium prices (GAIN report, 2012) of about 3-5 % (Gilbert 2009). It rather transformed to the partially liberalized system. The partially liberalized system features the presence of the state and private control system. In this system the function of the Ghana COCOBOD include, determination of cocoa purchase season, monitor and control of exports and internal marketing of cocoa beans, subsidize seeds to farmers, seed improvement/hybridization, cocoa quality control and provision of extensive services to cocoa farmers (GAIN report, 2012).This system effectively controls the activities of the middlemen who are the private companies tagged License Buying Companies (LBC) by fixing prices to buy cocoa from the producers at established buying centres and sell to the COCOBOD also at a fixed price (GAIN report 2012).
A different scenario can be seen in the existing liberalized sector in Nigeria and Cameroon. The Structural Adjustment Policy (SAP)in 1986 in Nigeria saw to the emergence of private exporters, powerful local buying agents with the incentive of no export tax, no government interference except in the areas of state inspection, payment of warehouse inspection fees, merchant registration fees, and fees on movement of
cocoa (Anti-slavery, 2014). With many players in the scene it has thus created a wider margin between the producers and the market (Olajide and Adewoye, 2012). Coupled with poor road networks in the cocoa producing areas, farmers are left at the mercy of local buying agents and exporters. The system features a poor backward investment towards improving production; cocoa farmers are faced with increasing cost of pesticides, which apart from labour is a cogent need in cocoa production, insufficient fund to purchase agro-chemicals and poor access to credit institutions (Sanusi and Lawal, 2006). The local buying agent and exporters in Nigeria to an extent have strong presence and controlling effect on cocoa farmers because farmers' are left at their mercy for input supply and a promise to deliver their cocoa beans (Ojo 2005). Also, the LBAs have caused the exit of some exporters; while farmers are at their mercy for input provision, the exporters are at their mercy to deliver cocoa based on previous advances, huge indebtedness has occurred, trust is what the present cocoa industry thrives on (Hamzat, 2005) but has seen little of it . All these, greatly adds to the quality issues of cocoa (Hamzat et al, 2006). The liberalization process has further promoted a competitive level for exporters and local buying agents, while they protect themselves from the cocoa price volatility, farmers bears most of the brunt and are surcharged at a certain percentage based on quality issues of their cocoa. Exporters are forced to go into certain cocoa certification in order to meet international market needs based on quality and quantity; prominent among these certification programmes are the UTZ certification, fair trade certification, and a quest for certified organic cocoa among others.
Cocoa farmers farmers
Other individual buying agent
armers group V
I t \
Quality control by State offices
The Cocoa Exporters (Merrchants in States)
V ^
The International Market
Figure 2 - The Liberalized system in Nigeria.
Source: GAIN Report 2012; Author's own editing, 2015.
2.3 Case Study: The Ivorian and Indonesian cocoa sub-sector
Figure 3shows the cocoa output for five major contributors to world cocoa production. The figure shows a sporadic growth of the Indonesian cocoa output and a significant geometric rise in the Cote D'ivoire cocoa output. Both countries overthrew Ghana and Niger-
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ia who were the leading producers in the early 60's towards mid 70's. While Ghana's output compete to take over its once lost glory, the output from the Nigeria's cocoa sector has not fared better than expected. The three toppers have a trade system which is different from the liberalization system. They all showa characteristic of significant state involvement. Exactly the reason for the Ghana's partially liberalized sector and the Indonesian government owned cocoa farms has an effect on policies in the cocoa industry. Indonesia is the third largest producer of cocoa after Cote D'ivoire, and Ghana ( FAO, 2010). The Indonesian cocoa sub-sector's messianic performance in the face of Asian economic crisis in mid-1997 contributed largely to the country's economy, this, Daryanto 1997 referred to the agricultural sector as a social safety valve (Muhammad Arysyad, 2007). Like its counterpart West Africacompetitors, Indonesia cocoa industry has small-holders farmers' family of 800,000, in major producing areas of Sulawesi Island, Sumateria Island, Bali, Maluku and Papua (Har Adri Basr, 2006). With 992,000 ha of land under cultivation , small holder farmers holds 89 % of farm lands, 5 % and 6 % for Government estate and private estate respectively (Har ADI BASRI, 2006). The yield of smallholders cocoa farmers is more than the West African (like Nigeria with over a million hectares under cocoa cultivation) to the tune of 1299kg/ha and contributes 88 % of total production (World bank, 2002),it can be as high
as over 2000kg/ha in areas of low pest and diseases incidence (Muhammad Arysyad, 2007), a major factor responsible for this is low age of tree stock (Gray, 2000, cited in Muhammad Arysyad, 2007), other factors include abundant suitable land areas and supportive climate, low cost of labor, good transport and infrastructure in Sulawesi which is the major producing area, huge macroeconomic support such as no export tax and a devaluated exchange rate, relatively low government intervention (research and development), proximity to Malaysia aid transfer of technology easily ((Muhammad Arysyad, 2007).
Cote D'ivoire's cocoa sector also features the heavy presence of government investment and revenue managementbetween 1960 and 1980, the country recorded increased production from 100,000 tonnes to 370, 000 tonnes. Most significant victory can be attributed to investment in industrial production, infrastructural development, and creation of par-astaltals corporations to encourage agricultural and industrial development (Sarah Grossman Green and Chris Bayer, 2009). The country's marketing system is more pronounced on price stabilization which has a backward effect on its increasing cocoa beans production, while there are presence of private individuals, there is a minimum set price at the farm level, a price refund to the exporters or to the state control in case of decrease or increase in world price markets (AntiSlavery International, 2014).
o m ID m (N in 00 o m ID Ol (N
10 ID 10 OO 00 00 01 Ol Ol ( 1 ( 1 ( 1 ( 1
01 01 O! O! 01 Ol Ol Ol 01 Ol Ol ( 1 ( 1 ( 1 ( 1 ( 1
(N (N (N (N (N
Figure 3 - Graph of cocoa production from 1961-2013
Source: FAOSTAT 2015, Authors own editing, 2015
3.0 SUMMARY
This study recognizes that while price is a major determinant of the production and quality of cocoa beans, the level of adopted control in the face of currency devaluation, forces of demand and supply, climatic factors, management practices at farm levels, infrastructural interventions, speaks volume of the output and quality of cocoa beans. On the basis of control of this price volatility, while the partially liberalized system in Ghana strictly controls middle men activities and the government is still responsible for cocoa exportation, this approach has favoured the quality attribute for the Ghana's cocoa and has earned it the best pre-
mium among its Africa's cocoa producers (Gilbert, 2009). The Nigeria liberalized system has recorded an increment in cocoa output more than the marketing board days as shown in the figure 4, but has not improved in quality; it is obvious that the same tale befalls Cameroon's cocoa industry. Gilbert and Tollens 2003 argued that poor quality effect should not only focus on exporters supply of quality but on their demand for quality. However, farmers lack poor management practices (Faturo-ti, 2010), poor extension activities among others cannot allow small-holders farmers to meet the demanded quality, Olajide and Olawoye 2010, established a positive correlation between farm income and cocoa quality.
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^^—Post-Liberalisation Yield(Kg/ha) Pre-Liberalisation Yield (kg/ha)
Figure 4 - Cocoa yield/ha in Nigeria (Pre and Post Liberalization)
4.0 CONCLUSION
It is evident that the present liberalized policy in Nigeria neglected the cogent farm level subsidy support; input supply and cocoa quality control and most importantly infrastructural incentives needed in free market system. It has not successfully increase the farmers' income, but rather exporters' income; expose farmers more to cocoa price volatile effects without a cushion, reduce farm level income, poor market information, little or no premium trickles down to the farmers from the exporters angle among others. These, however cannot be totally attributed to failure of the liberalization system but the failure of non-availability of incentives to improve liberalization. On the other hand, the Ivorian system cannot however be said to be a superduper, but has shown a surviving trend as world leading cocoa producer and has flawed liberalisation (Gilbert 2009), with yet a limit to quantity exported, price control and price stabilization, like the Ghana cocoa, all was to create a buffer and protect farmers. According to Gilbert, 2009, the Ivorian technique has rather created a chaotic and expensive system. On the following note it is recommended that as much as government should not be involved in cocoa marketing. It must mandatorily play its role in providing necessary incentives at the farm levels such as provision of inputs at subsidized rate, this would to a large ex-
tent decrease farmers' dependence on local buying agents, provision of farmers school, infrastructural development, allocate higher for research and development, make adequate extension services available. A cue can be taken from the Ivorian systems, for a tremendous investment in infrastructural activities which major cocoa producing zones are lacking.Other recommendations include:
- Youth programme should be centered towards improving cocoa production, youths can be used to enlighten aged cocoa farmers on good management practices, planting of new seedlings etc.
- Adopt susbsidy dispensation based on group to encourage farmers to form groups and co-operatives.They can sell into their groups and to the exporters directly. This will create a further awareness of market price and improve direct participation of farmers in marketing.
- Adopt technological market information for farmers on cocoa market price and input price information should specially include cocoa, this is most important for cocoa and other commodity crops
- Liberate farmers from depending on input supply from other stakeholders in the coco chain, by providing inputs at subsidized rate.
- Create a stricter quality control at the exporters' warehouses.
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