CC BY
60Original article. Economics studies УДК 339.9:625.1(510)
https://doi.org/10.31696/2227-5568-2022-01-048-066
CHINAS FOREIGN ECONOMIC PROJECTS IN THE RAILWAY SECTOR Nelli N. Semenova
Institute of Oriental Studies of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia, semenovanelli-2011@mail.ru
Abstract. China, long before the Belt and Road Initiative was announced, formed a strategic plan for the construction of international railways. After the Chinese government formally proposed a strategy for Chinese high-speed rail to enter the overseas high-speed rail market in 2009, the activity of Chinese railway construction continues to grow. The PRC has accelerated the modernization of its internal railways and has created the world's most advanced high-speed rail system. The unification and standardization of the construction process of high-speed railways, rolling stock, infrastructure facilities and new technologies within the framework of the «Made in China» program has made it possible to create a unique world-class product - high-speed railways of the Chinese standard and enter the international market with it. The Belt and Road Initiative not only provided additional acceleration, but also created a theoretical basis for the «prestige» of participation in the initiative. As part of the Belt and Road Initiative, the internationalization of China's railway standards has yielded positive results. Many BRI rail projects have been completed and operational. As a rule, not only Chinese technical standards are used in construction, but also basic engineering materials, rolling stock, engineering and construction equipment, Chinese builders and maintenance personnel. But the PRC's energetic actions in promoting the Belt and Road Initiative cannot be called unimpeded. Many projects with Chinese participation remain until the time in the form of agreements or for various reasons, financial, domestic political, technical and reasons of "lack of a common vision" are postponed or suspended. The article examines the major rail construction projects with Chinese participation, completed and under construction, in Eurasia, Africa and South America. Keywords: China, strategic plan, railway construction, foreign projects
For citation: Semenova N. K. China's foreign economic projects in the railway sector. Vostocnaa analitika = Eastern Analytics. 2022;13(1):48-66. https://doi.org/10.31696/2227-5568-2022-01-048-066.
Научная статья. Экономические науки
ВНЕШНЕЭКОНОМИЧЕСКИЕ ПРОЕКТЫ КИТАЯ В ЖЕЛЕЗНОДОРОЖНОМ СЕКТОРЕ
Нелли Кимовна Семенова
Институт востоковедения РАН, Москва, Россия, semenovanelli-2011@mail.ru
Аннотация. Китай, задолго до объявления инициативы «Один пояс, один путь», сформировал стратегический план строительства международных железных дорог. С тех пор, как в 2009 г. китайское правительство официально предложило стратегию выхода китайских высокоскоростных железных дорог на зарубежный рынок высокоскоростных железных дорог, активность китайского железнодорожного строительства продолжает расти. КНР ускорила модернизацию своих внутренних железных дорог и создала самую передовую в мире систему
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высокоскоростных железных дорог. Унификация и стандартизация процесса строительства высокоскоростных железных дорог, подвижного состава, объектов инфраструктуры и новых технологий в рамках программы «Сделано в Китае» позволили создать уникальный продукт мирового уровня - высокоскоростные железные дороги китайского стандарта и выйти с ним на международный рынок.
Инициатива «Один пояс, один путь» не только обеспечила дополнительное ускорение, но и создала теоретическую основу «престижности» участия в инициативе. В рамках инициативы «Один пояс, один путь» (BRI) интернационализация китайских железнодорожных стандартов дала положительные результаты. Многие железнодорожные проекты BRI были завершены и введены в эксплуатацию. Как правило, в строительстве используются не только китайские технические стандарты, но и основные инженерные материалы, подвижной состав, инженерное и строительное оборудование, строители и обслуживающий персонал из Китая. Но энергичные действия КНР по продвижению инициативы «Один пояс, один путь» нельзя назвать беспрепятственными. Многие проекты с китайским участием остаются, до поры до времени, в виде договоренностей или, по разным причинам, финансовым, внутриполитическим, техническим, а также по причинам «отсутствия общего видения» откладываются или приостанавливаются. В статье рассматриваются крупные проекты железнодорожного строительства с участием Китая, реализованные и строящиеся в Евразии, Африке и Южной Америке. Ключевые слова: Китай, стратегический план, железнодорожное строительство, зарубежные проекты
Для цитирования: Semenova N. K. China's foreign economic projects in the railway sector. Восточная аналитика. 2022;13(1):48-66. https://doi.org/10.31696/2227-5568-2022-01-048-066.
The People's Republic of China has carried out the modernization of domestic railways at an accelerated pace, has created the most advanced high-speed railway system in the world. Unification and standardization of the process of construction of high-speed railways, rolling stock, infrastructure facilities and new technologies within the framework of the "created in China" program made it possible to create a unique world-class product - high-speed railways of the Chinese standard and enter the international market with it.
China, long before the announcement of the Belt and Road initiative, formed a strategic plan for the construction of international railways. The first foreign economic project of the PRC in the railway sector was the Tanzania-Zambia railway project, implemented in 1970-1976 by three participants: China, Tanzania and Zambia. The Tanzania-Zambia Railway (Tanzam) (Fig. 1) is the main transport route that passes through East Africa, Central and South Africa and is one of the largest foreign aid projects of China.
The railway starts from Dar es Salaam, the capital of Tanzania in the east, and ends in the west at New Kapiri Mposhi in Zambia, has a length of 1860,5 km1. The cost of construction amounted to 406 million US dollars (the equivalent of 2,56 bil-
1 Zhongguo Yuan Jian Tan Zan Telu (ФШШШМ-Ш'&.Ш) [China promoted the construction of the Tanzania-Zambia railway (in Chinese)]. URL: https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/ce/cohk/chn/topic/zgwj/wjlshk/ t9001.htm (access date: 20.11.202l).
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lion dollars today). The railway is the only way of mass transportation of copper ore from Zambia to the coast.
Later, in 2014, Chinese funding made it possible to revive the idea of building a transcontinental railway in Africa, connecting the Atlantic and Indian Oceans, passing through the territories of Angola, the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Zambia, reaching the hub port under construction in Tanzania (Fig. 1). The state company China Railway Construction (CRCC)2 completed repair and restoration work on the 1344-kilometer railway The railway Caminho de Ferro de Ben-guela (CFB)-running from Lobito via Benguela to Luau on the border with the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). The Chinese company replaced the 1067 km narrow gauge track laid down in 1929 by Portugal, the highest colonial rulers of Angola, with a Chinese standard 1435 mm railroad3.
Figure 1. Tanzania-Zambia railway (Раке 1) will be part Transcontinental railway in Africa (РаА: 2) Source: URL: [https://www.chronicle.co.zw/chinas-first-african-silk-road/, https://asia.nikkei.com]
Another Chinese railway construction project was carried out in 1990 - the railway connected Urumqi (PRC) with the border city of Aktogay in Kazakhstan, which was a prelude to the establishment of a railway connection between China and the countries of Central Asia (Fig. 2).
Back in 1990, the railway connected Urumqi (PRC) with the border town of Aktogay in Kazakhstan, which became a prelude to the establishment of railway communication between China and the countries of Central Asia. A few years later, the railway began to run south and west along the branch of the western line of the Tarim Basin, and in 1999 the railway officially arrived in Kashgar (PRC)4.
2 China Railway Construction Corporation (CRCC). URL: https://english.crcc.cn/ (access date: 20.11.2021).
3 Angola reopens the first rehabilitated railway line. URL: http://country.eiu.com/article.aspx7articleid =1117787296&Country=Angola&topic=Economy&subtopic=Recent+developments&subsubtopic=Eco nomic+performance:+Angola+reopens+the+first+rehabilitated+railway+line (access date: 20.11.2021).
4 Zhong Ba Telu (^Eft®) [China-Pakistan Railway (in Chinese)]. URL: https://baike.baidu.com/item/ ^Eft^/4857491 (access date: 21.11.2021).
Figure 2. Section of the Urumqi (PRC) - Aktogay (Kazakhstan) railway Source: compiled by the author using [the Railway map of Kazakhstan].
In 2009, the Chinese government formally proposed a strategy for Chinese high-speed railways to enter the overseas high-speed rail market and identified three strategic directions: the European-Asian high-speed railroad - to Europe via Russia; Central Asian High Speed Railway - from Urumqi through Central Asia to Germany; and the Pan-Asian High Speed Railroad - originating in Kunming and connecting the countries of Southeast Asia (Laos, Thailand and Malaysia) with Singapore. If the strategy can be completed, the Eurasian continent and the entire African continent, where the super-economies of China, the European Union, Russia and India are located, will form a huge regional market community with the help of high-speed railways.
The China-Europe Trans-Eurasian Express (Chongqing-Duisburg) was successfully launched on March 19, 2011. The China-Europe train departs from Tuan-jetsun Station in Chongqing and leaves Alashankou in Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, passing through Kazakhstan, Russia, Belarus, Poland and the station Duisburg in Germany (Fig. 3).
The total distance is about 11 thousand km, and the travel time is about 15 days. Since then, Chengdu, Zhengzhou, Wuhan, Suzhou, Guangzhou and other cities have sequentially opened container routes to Europe (Fig. 3). According to national customs statistics, as of May 18, 2021, the total number of China-Europe freight trains reached 38,000, carrying 3,4 million TEU of goods, to 151 cities in 22 European countries, and the logistics and distribution network covers the whole of Europe5.
5 Zhongou Ban Le Jianjie Ji Fazhan Licheng (^^S^JM^&SMMS) [Introduction and development history of China-Europe Express (in Chinese)]. URL: http://www.gdouhua.com/jiuquan_new3/475.html (access date: 20.11.2021).
Figure 3. China-Europe rail routes, including the Chongqing-Duisburg route
Source: URL: [https://i2.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-New-Silk-Road.
png?resize=1024%2C631&ssl=1]
In 2012, in Venezuela, the PRC planned to complete the construction of a two-lane electrified high-speed railway Dinako-Anaco with a total length of 471,5 km. Chinese technical standards were used in the construction, basic engineering materials, rolling stock, engineering equipment and construction equipment are imported from China, and the total contract value of the project is $7,5 billion. In 2016, due to lack of funds and the crisis in Venezuela, construction was suspended6.
In 2013, Chinese President Xi Jinping proposed a basic strategic concept for the joint construction of the Silk Road Economic Belt and the 21st Century Maritime Silk Road. The Belt and Road Initiative aims to connect Central Asia, Southeast Asia, South Asia, Western Asia and even parts of Europe. It covers the Asia-Pacific region to the east and the European economic circle to the west, with almost 4,4 billion people in 64 countries with a combined economic value of about $21 trillion. 28 March 2015. The Chinese government has published a Vision and Action to Promote the Joint Construction of the Silk Road Economic Belt and the 21st Century Maritime Silk Road7, which comprehensively explains the vision, goals, objectives, mechanisms and actions of the Belt and Road Initiative. The core of the Belt and Road design is «five links and three links» - to «facilitate political communi-
6 Zhongguo Chengjian Nanmei Shou Tiao Gaote Tingbai Weineizhuila Zenmeliao? 'M^MftWM ^rtMte&^T? ) [China's construction of South America's first high-speed rail is suspended. What's wrong with Venezuela? (in Chinese)]. URL: http://news.sohu.com/20160517/ n449815907.shtml (access date: 20.11.2021).
7 Tuidong Gong Jian Sichou Zhi Lu Jingji Dai He 21 Shiji Haishan Sichou Zhi Lu Te Yuanjing Yu Xingdong» (Quanwen) ( ). «The Vision and Actions for Promoting the Joint Construction of the Silk Road Economic Belt and the 21st Century Maritime Silk Road» (full text) (in Chinese)]. URL: http://2017.beltandroadforum.org/ n100/2017/0407/c27-22.html (access date: 20.11.2021).
cation, linking objects, smooth trade, financial and people-to-people connections, establishing a community of interest, a community of destiny and a community of responsibility»8.
In the framework of the above-mentioned strategic direction, China is closely cooperating with the countries located along the «Belt and Road» for the active construction of six economic corridors that form the basis of the Economic Belt of the Silk Road: China-Mongolia-Russia, the New Eurasian Continental Bridge Asia-Europe, China-Central Asia - Western Asia, China-Indo-China Peninsula, China-Brazil, China-Pakistan, Bangladesh-China-India-Myanmar, to create the land frame of the Silk Road Economic Belt (SREB). Nine key Belt and Road transport projects planned by the Chinese Ministry of Communications: China - Laos - Thailand, China - Mongolia, China - Russia, China - Pakistan, China - Kyrgyzstan - Ukraine, China - Kazakhstan, China - Thailand - Afghanistan - Iraq, China - India, ChinaVietnam, basically built the Silk Road corridor, which connects transport channels within the country with the outside world.
The China-Mongolia-Russia economic corridor9 is divided into two routes: North China from Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei to Hohhot and then to Mongolia and Russia; Northeastern China from Dalian, Shenyang, Changchun, Harbin to Manchuria and Chita in Russia. The construction of the SREB in China is associated with the transformation of the Trans-Siberian Railway of Russia and Mongolia's Steppe Route initiative [Hua Qian, 2015: 51-65], which contributes to strengthening rail and road communications, facilitating customs clearance and facilitating transportation, as well as developing cooperation in the field of transit traffic.
Currently, within the framework of the China-Mongolia-Russia economic corridor, international freight trains of the China-Russia-Europe railways have opened, such as Jin-Man-Europe, Su-Man-Europe, Yue-Man-Europe and Shen-Man-Europe (Fig. 4).
The New Eurasian Continental Bridge10 is an international rail transport route from the eastern coastal ports of China to the port of Rotterdam in the Netherlands. In the past, the domestic railway consisted of the Longhai and Lanxin Railways. On February 8, 2021, after the Lianyungang-Xuzhou high-speed railway and Lianyungang-Urumqi high-speed railway were put into operation, the new
8 Zhongguo Gaote «Zou Chuqui» Te Shi Da Tiaozhan Yu Zhanlyue Duyce
tt^^^^X^Ä. Ten challenges and strategic countermeasures for China's high-speed rail «going out» (in Chinese)]. URL: http://theory.people.com.cn/n1/2016/0818/c40531-28646334.html (access date: 20.11.2021).
9 Zhong Meng E Jingji Zoulang (^MÄ^'M^M. [China-Mongolia-Russia Economic Corridor (in Chinese)]. URL: https://baike.baidu.com/item/^Äg^^Ä/15765376 (access date: 20.11.2021).
10 Xin Ya Ou Dalu Qiao «Dongfang Qiaotoubao» Ying Lai Bianju! Qingdao Gang, Rizhao Gang He Lianyungang Gan Kai-shek Lianshou
[New Eurasian Continental Bridge «Oriental Bridgehead» ushered in a change! Qingdao Port, Rizhao Port and Lianyungang Port began to join forces (in Chinese)]. URL: http://124.133.228.83/ articleContent/2541_868616.html (access date: 20.11.2021).
Eurasian Continental Bridge added a high-speed rail element. The new Eurasian continental bridge runs across the north-central part of the PRC from east to west, passing through 8 provinces and regions of Shandong, Jiangsu, Shaanxi, Gansu, Qinghai and Xinjiang to Alashankou on the border between China and Kazakhstan on the Sino-Russian border. Three routes are planned from China to the port of Rotterdam in the Netherlands. Currently, the new Eurasian Continental Bridge has become the main logistics link between China and Europe.
Figure 4. China-Mongolia-Russia railway route
Sources: [Mongolian Ministry of Road, Transport Construction & Urban Development (MMRT), Aspire Data].
The Hungary-Serbia high-speed railway is a cooperation project between China and the countries of Central and Eastern Europe. The Hungary-Serbia railway runs from Budapest, the capital of Hungary, to Belgrade, the capital of Serbia (Fig. 5), with a total length of 350 km, including 166 km in Hungary and 184 km in Serbia. The project is an electrified passenger-freight high-speed mixed line. The total length of the freight-passenger railway is 350 km, the design speed is 200 km/h. In 2020, two sections of the Hungary-Serbia railway were opened to traffic11. Once completed and opened for traffic, travel time will be reduced from the current 8 hours up to less than 3 hours. The next stage is Nis-Skopje. The Greek part of the railway covers two port centers: Thessaloniki and Athens.
The economic corridor China-Central Asia-West Asia - from Xinjiang, to the Persian Gulf, the Mediterranean coast and the Arabian Peninsula, mainly involving the five Central Asian countries (Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan), Iran, Turkey and other countries. In this direction, two high-speed rail projects according to Chinese standards have already been com-
11 Xiong Sai Telu (^S^SK) [Hungary-Serbia Railway (in Chinese)]. URL: https://baike.baidu.com/item/ ^S^^/12629493 (access date: 20.11.2021).
missioned. The first project is Phase II of the Anyi high-speed railway project. It is the largest technical cooperation project between China and Turkey in 40 years since the establishment of diplomatic relations between China and Turkey. The total length of the Ankara-Istanbul high-speed railway (Fig. 6) is 533 km. The total length of Phase II is 158 km, the design speed is 250 km/h, and the contract value is $1,27 billion12. The official opening ceremony took place on July 25, 2014.
Figure 5. High speed railway Hungary-Serbia
Sources: [Korridor X PLUS. www.kx-plus.com]
Figure 6. Ankara-Istanbul High Speed Railway (Turkey)
Source: [happyrail.com]
12 Zhongguo-Zhong Ya-Sia Jingji Zoulang (^ffl-^M-HM^^^^) [China-Central Asia-West Asia Economic Corridor(in Chinese)].URL: https://baike.baidu.com/item/^H-^M-HM£2^^^/ 24618319 (access date: 22.11.2021).
The next project is the Vahdat-Yavan (Vaya) railway project13 - the first project carried out by China Railway Construction in Tajikistan (Fig. 7). The length of the Vai railway is 48,65 km, and the total investment is $72 million. Construction began on May 15, 2015.
Figure 7. Railway Vahdat-Yavan (Tajikistan)
Source: URL: [https://baike.baidu.com/item/EM^^/17602077]
Major works included 3 tunnels and 5 bridges. On March 7, 2016, tunnel No. 1 of the Vakhdat-Yavan railway project was successfully completed. Tunnel 1 has a total length of 2 kilometers, which is the longest of the three tunnel missions of the project and the last passage. On August 24, 2016, the Tajik Vakhdat-Yavan railway was officially opened to traffic.
The Pan-Asian railway network (PARN) project (Fig. 8)14 has three high-speed rail lines to strengthen rail links between China and the mainland of Southeast Asia: central, eastern and western routes, connecting eight countries, namely Singapore, Malaysia, Thailand. Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam, Myanmar and China15.
The central PARN line16,with a length of 4.5 thousand km, begins in China (Kunming), passes through Laos, Thailand and Malaysia and ends in Singapore
13 Wa Ya Telu (HftS) [Waya Railway (in Chinese)]. URL: https://baike.baidu.com/item/^M^ S&/17602077 (access date: 23.11.2021).
14 Tai Mei: Zhongguo Jiancheng Fan Ya Telu Wang Zongzhang Jin 1.5 Wan Gongli
^S&l^ [Thai media: China builds a pan-Asian railway network with a total length
of nearly 15,000 kilometers (in Chinese)]. URL: http://finance.sina.com.cn/world/gjcj/2015-12-29/ doc-ifxmykrf2550663.shtml (access date: 24.11.2021).
15 The Great Rail Dilemma - Laos Having Regrets As China's Grand Pan-Asia Railway Dream Sours. URL: https://thailand-construction.com/the-great-rail-dilemma-laos-having-regrets-as-chinas-grand-pan-asia-railway-dream-sours/ (access date: 24.11.2021).
16 ZhongTai Telu Shi Zhi Shenme? Zhong Tai Telu Xianlu Tu Xiangjie ('^^S^ialt^?1^^^ ^¡^SWM) [What is the China-Thailand Railway? Detailed explanation of China-Thailand railway line map (in Chinese)]. URL: https://www.imsilkroad.com/news/p/397750.html (access date: 24.11.2021).
(Fig. 8). The Laos-China line (418 km) will extend to Mohan in Yunnan Province (China), from where a 553-kilometer railway will run to Kunming. The central route is the shortest and will be responsible for transporting goods from Yunnan to Thailand. This route is expected to boost trade between Thailand and China.
¿.и—. ПМ II____!__ CHINA
THE PAN-ASIA RAILWAY NETWORK
« CentraL Route
Kunming Yuxi Mohan Vientiane Bangkok Kuala Lumpur 4 Singapore
Western Route
Kunming Da! Baoshan Ruili Yangon Bangkok Kuala Lumpur 4 Singapore
Eastern Route
Kunming -> Yuxl 4 Mengzi Hekou -ï Hanoi Ho Chi Mint! Phnom Penh Bangkok 4 Kuala Lumpur Singapore
Figure 8. The Pan-Asia railway network
Source: [POSTgraphics].
The western PARN line17 runs from Kunming to Singapore through Myanmar, Thailand and Malaysia (Fig. 8), its total length is 4,76 thousand km. The western route leads to the Dawei deep-water seaport and industrial zone in Myanmar. In the future, Dawei will become a trade center connecting the Indian Ocean, the Middle East, Europe and Africa.
Eastern route of PARN18, he Eastern Route of the PAVR, which leads from Kunming to Vietnam via Yuxi, Mengzi and Hekou (PRC) (Fig. 8). Then it passes through Vietnam, Cambodia, Thailand and Malaysia to Singapore with a total length of 5,5 thousand km. The eastern line uses Vietnam's existing railways. It is a land
17 Tai Mei: Zhongguo Jiancheng Fan Ya Telu Wang Zongzhang Jin 1.5 Wan Gongli
^S&l^ [Thai media: China builds a pan-Asian railway network with a total length
of nearly 15,000 kilometers (in Chinese)]. URL: http://finance.sina.com.cn/world/gjcj/2015-12-29/ doc-ifxmykrf2550663.shtml (access date: 24.11.2021).
18 Zhongguo-Zhongnan Bandao Jingji Zoulang (^H-^ft^^^^^ft) [China-Indochina Peninsula Economic Corridor (in Chinese)]. URL: https://baike.baidu.com/item/^H-^ft^^^^^ ft/24618474 (access date: 20.11.2021).
bridge connecting China with the Indochina Peninsula, a transnational economic corridor for cooperation between China and ASEAN.
Since all three routes of the rail network pass through Bangkok, Bangkok will have an important strategic position in the region. When the rail network is complete, Chinese goods can be loaded at ports in the Gulf of Thailand without using the Strait of Malacca.
The PARN project is being carried out at a fairly fast pace. A section of the railway connecting Thailand and the Chinese province of Yunnan is already close to commissioning. The total cost of the project is approximately 741,4 billion baht (approximately 143 billion yuan, 23,3 billion US dollars), two high-speed railways are planned to be built by 2021, which will be connected to the railways of China: Nong Khai-Mata (total length 737 km, planned investments 392,5 billion baht); Chang Hong Paci (total length 655 km, planned investment 348,8 billion baht)19.
The Sino-Thai High Speed Railway20 starts from Bangkok, Thailand in the south, and connects with the China-Laos Railway in the north to the Thailand-Laos border, forming a direct route to Kunming. The section of the Sino-Thai Railway in Thailand is divided into two phases: north and south. The southern part of the first phase runs from the capital of Bangkok to Nakhon Ratchasima, a large city in the northeast, with a total length of about 250 kilometers.
The Sino-Lao Railway21 (Fig. 8), is an important part of the middle corridor of the Trans-Asian Railway and runs from Mohan / Bodin on the China-Laos border in the north to Vientiane, the capital of Laos in the south, and passes through major cities such as Moon Sai, Luang Prabang and Vang Vieng in the south of Laos. The total length is 418 km, of which more than 60% are bridges and tunnels. The construction standard is the national railroad class I (PRC), single-track structure, electric traction, mixed passenger and freight transport, and a speed of 160 km/h. The total investment in the China-Laos railway project is about 37,4 billion yuan.
On May 15, 2018, the main construction began officially on the joint project promoted by China and Indonesia under the Belt and Road Initiative - Jakarta-Bandung High Speed Rail in Indonesia22 (Fig. 9).
19 Fan Ya Telu, Gaote Weijiao Yu Quanqu Hua 4.0 4.0) [Trans-Asian
Railway, High-speed Railway Diplomacy and Globalization 4.0 (in Chinese)]. URL: http://www.cgbchina. com.cn /bondscontent.gsp?kind=bond!getNews.action?news_id=&bondNewId=6268221 (access date: 24.11.2021).
20^Dazao Taigo Xin Dibiao! Zhongguo Jianzhu Shou Ge Haiwai Gaote Xiangmu Layle (fT^^HKtt
[Create a new landmark in Thailand! China Construction's first overseas high-speed rail project is here (in Chinese)]. URL: https://www.4hidc.com/2021040225221005. html (access date: 25.11.2021).
21 Zhong Lao Telu Shi Zhi Shenme? Zhong Lao Telu Xianlu Tu Xiangjie Qihou C^^SS^afr^?1^ ^^SS^SSSR^Ä) [What is the China-Laos Railway? Detailed explanation of China-Laos railway line map (in Chinese)]. URL: https://www.imsilkroad.com/news/p/397693.html (access date: 25.11.2021).
22 I Wan Gaote: Zhongguo Gaote Fan'an Zouchu Gomen «Di Yi Tribute»
^i^HH»®—^») [What is the China-Laos Railway? Detailed explanation of China-Laos railway line map (in Chinese)]. URL: https://www.sohu.com/a/450692142_731021 (access date: 26.11.2021).
Figure 9. Jakarta-Bandung-Surabaya Rail Project
Source: [www.silkroadbriefing.com]
The total length of the Jakarta-Bandung high-speed railway is 142,3 km, the maximum design speed is 350 km/h, the trip between the two points will be reduced from the current three hours to 40 minutes23, which will actually reduce the load on local traffic in Indonesia and optimize local traffic investment envi-ronment24. Investments in construction amounted to $4.5 billion. The Chinese side owns 40% of the shares, while the Indonesian side owns 60% of the shares.
In 2020, the Indonesian government announced the expansion of its planned Java Hi-Speed Rail project, which has stalled due to political, financial and coro-navirus concerns. The Jakarta-Bandung high-speed rail project will be extended to Surabaya in the eastern part of Java (Fig. 9). The government also decided to include Japan in the project 25.With goals to drive the economic growth on the surrounding areas of the railway lines, government expects the construction of this fast train line to be completed between Jakarta and Bandung in 2021 and to Surabaya by 2022, and is expected to require a total investment of US $6,07 billion.
With goals to drive the economic growth on the surrounding areas of the railway lines, government expects the construction of this fast train line to be completed between Jakarta and Bandung in 2021 and to Surabaya by 2022, and is expected to require a total investment of US $6,07 billion.
The Middle East direction is also being developed by Chinese railway companies. The 18th Bureau of China Railways Group and the China Earth Group of Companies participated in the construction of various sections of the Haramain highspeed rail project connecting Mecca and Medina (Fig. 10), two sacred sites of Islam.
23 Ya Wan Gaote Xiangmu Jianshe Wenbu Tuijin (ffi^M^MSS&SPffiffl) [The construction of the Jakarta-Bandung high-speed rail project is progressing steadily (in Chinese)]. URL: http://world. people.com.cn/n1/2021/0501/c1002-32093601.html (access date: 26.11.2021).
24 Indonesia to continue with Jakarta - Bandung extension plans URL: https://www.railjournal.com / regions/asia/indonesia-to-continue-with-jakarta-bandung-extension-plans/ (access date: 27.11.2021).
25 Chris Devonshire-Ellis Japanese Investors Come In On China Belt & Road Project. URL: https://www. silkroadbriefing.com/news/2020/06/03/indonesias-jakarta-bandung-surabaya-rail-project-back-track/ (access date: 28.11.2021).
Figure 10. Railwais of Saudi-Arabia and Haramain high speed rail line
Source: URL: [https://www.tunneltalk.com/Saudi-Arabia-25Sep2013-Jeddah-Riyadh-Dammam-Jubail-
Landbridge-rail-project-revival.php]
Haramain High Speed Rail is the world's first high-speed rail to cross desert terrain and the first two-line electrified high-speed rail in Saudi Arabia with a design maximum speed of 360 km/h officially opened in 2018. The total length of the Mecca-Medina high-speed rail line is 450 km, including Medina station, Rabig King Abdullah economic city station, King Abdul Aziz international airport station, Jeddah station and Mecca station. Travel time from Mecca to Medina reduced from 4 hours to 2 hours26.
In the context of foreign cooperation in railway construction, the PRC is actively involved in the African continent. A landmark project is the railway from Ethiopia to Djibouti - «Yaji»27 (Fig. 11), built in the framework of the One Way initiative and the "Ten Cooperation Plans"28 of the Johannesburg Summit of the Sino-African Cooperation Forum and an example of the implementation of the Sino-African cooperation «Three Networks, one dimension»29.
26 Shate Mai Mai Gaote Kaitong Ishi Zai Ji Da Xianchang Juxing
[The opening ceremony of Saudi Arabia's Mai-Mai high-speed rail was held in Jeddah (in Chinese)]. URL: http://www.xinhuanet.com/2018-09/26/c_1123487089.htm (access date: 28.11.2021).
27 Ya Ji Telu (M^^SS) [Aji Railway (in Chinese)]. URL: https://baike.baidu.com/item/M^^ S/20123454#:~: text=M^^S#(Addis%20Ababa, Wfc^ttlg (access date: 28.11.2021).
28 Zhong Fei Shi Da Hezuo Jihua [Ten China-Africa cooperation plans (in Chinese)]. URL: https://baike.baidu.com/item/^#+^^M+$iJ/18910740 (access date: 28.11.2021).
29 Zhongwaj_Xuezhe Tan Zhong Fei Hezuo: «San Wang Yi Hua» Shi Feizhou Ban «Idai Ilu»
[Chinese and foreign scholars talk about China-Africa cooperation: «Three Networks and One Transformation» is the African version of «One Belt One Road» (in Chinese)]. URL: http://world.people.com.cn/n/2015/0911/c1002-27569764.html (access date: 29.11.2021).
Figure 11. Addis Ababa (Ethiopia) - Djibouti City (Djibouti) Railway
Source: URL: [https://baike.baidu.com/]
This railway opened on January 1, 2018 and is the first electrified railway in East Africa. It is built using Chinese standards and Chinese hardware. Its total length is 751,7 km, the design speed is 120 km/h, the travel time from Djibouti to Addis Ababa has been reduced from 7 days for road transport to 10 hours, and the total investment is about 4 billion30 doll. It is the first overseas Chinese railway project to combine design standards, investment and financing, equipment and materials, construction, supervision and management of the entire production chain, and is a landmark achievement for the Belt and Road.
The strategic importance of the Yaji railway is very great, it is not only a transport line, but also an economic corridor that opened a large railway canal to the sea for Ethiopia, which effectively contributed to industrialization and urbanization along the railways.
The Mombasa-Nairobi Railway (Fig. 12) plays a leading role in the East African railway network.
Back in May 2014, an agreement was signed to finance the Mombasa-Nairobi railway in the presence of leaders from East Africa, including the presidents of Kenya, Uganda, Rwanda and South Sudan, as well as representatives from Tanzania, Burundi and the African Development Bank. In 2017, the Mombasa-Nairobi railway was commissioned with a standard (Chinese) gauge, 480 km long, worth about $3.8 billion and meeting Chinese standards31. This line became part of the
30 Ya Ji Telu (M^^K) [Aji Railway (in Chinese)]. URL: https://baike.baidu.com/item/ K/20123454#:~: text=Mw&K(Addis%20Ababa, WteSttI© (access date: 28.11.2021).
31 Meng Nei Telui Zhu Feizhou Da Shang Hezuo Gong Ying De "Zhongguo Kuaiche" (Mrt^K:®^
[Mombasa-Nairobi Railway: Help Africa get on the "China Express" of win-win cooperation (in Chinese)]. URL: https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/ce/ceke/chn/zfgx/t1472187.htm (access date: 28.11.2021).
modern Northern Corridor rail system32, that linked Kenya with Uganda, Rwanda and South Sudan (Fig. 1, part 2).
The main Northern Corridor transport network is connected to the Port of Mombasa and includes a road network; railways belonging to Kenya Railways Corporation and Uganda Railways Corporation; rail-lake transport; inland water routes; container terminals; Tororo Inland Port plus an oil pipeline.
Figure 12. Major Corridors in East Africa including the Mombasa-Nairobi railway (Kenya) Source: URL: [https://openjicareport.jica.go.jp/pdf/11936689_02.pdf]
Kenya is a transit country for raw materials and supplies throughout East Africa. The Mombasa-Nairobi Railway has become the starting point, junction and gateway to the «Northern Corridor Rail Network in East Africa» [Deng Yant-ing, 2019: 3-25], and improving the efficiency of transporting port materials from Mombasa to the East African hinterland is essential for the economic development of the entire region. The Kenyan government estimates that the new railway will cut freight costs in East Africa by 79%, selling costs by 40% and transportation times in half33.
China's latest investments in Djibouti are 14 major infrastructure projects currently planned & under construction - all financed mainly by Chinese banks amounting to $14,4 billion, including
32 Rwanda Appointed as the New Head of Northern Corridor. URL: https://newscentral.africa/2021/08/10/ rwanda-appointed-as-the-new-head-of-northern-corridor/(access date: 28.11.2021).
33 Meng Nei Telui Zhu Feizhou Da Shang Hezuo Gong Ying De «Zhongguo Kuaiche» (Mrt^SS:®^
[Mombasa-Nairobi Railway: Help Africa get on the «China Express» of win-win cooperation (in Chinese)]. URL: https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/ce/ceke/chn/zfgx/t1472187.htm (access date: 29.11.2021).
1. Ports - $185 million stake in the port of Djibouti with management from 2015, & $400 million to develop port facilities;
2. Railway - the recently completed $4 billion, 450-mile railway line linking Djibouti port with its landlocked neighbor, Ethiopia's capital, Addis Ababa - to be carrying 100% exports of Ethiopia replacing truck transports from 2 days to 10 hours;
3. 2 airports;
4. Free Trade Zone - A 10-year project to create new warehouse and office space facilities near the port, the largest FTZ in Africa [Chan, 2017: 35].
China's railway projects are also present in Latin America. Since 2015, projects have been actively developed in the transport sector, and their number has reached 39. Representative projects include the Belgrano railway in Argentina, the Mayan railway in Mexico34, the «Railway of the two oceans»35 with a length of about 4919 km from the state of Rio de Janeiro on southeast, through South America, to the port of Callao in Peru [Rosario, 2018: 33-52], the Bahia railway in Brazil36, the Brazilian municipal rail project in Sao Paulo37, the metro in Bogota38 the capital of Colombia, etc. Venezuela, Ecuador, Chile, Bolivia and Jamaica have also established infrastructure cooperation in the transport sector with Chinese companies.
A major railway project started in 2013 - China National Machinery & Equipment Engineering Co., Ltd. became the general contractor for the reconstruction project of the Beyrano railway line (Argentina)39 (Fig. 13).
As of June 2021, 858 km have been covered under the 1,700 km long Belgrano Cargas track reconstruction project. After the completion of the project, the travel time will be reduced from 14 to 3 days, and the average speed will be 90 km/h40.
34 »Mosige» May Telu Xiangmu Zuixin Dongtai (fiE^Ji^ffi^SSl^SftSsi^) [The latest developments in the Mayan Railway Project in Mexico (in Chinese)]. URL: http://www.rail-transit.com/ xinwen/show.php?itemid=15089 (access date: 29.11.2021).
35 Liang Yang Telu [Two-Ocean Railway (in Chinese)]. URL: https://baike.baidu.com/item/ M#^S/14921254 (access date: 29.11.2021).
36 Zhongguo, Basi Guntong Jianzheng Quanqiu Shou Tiao Kua Hai Yun Gui Zhengshi Xia Xian (^
^^It^isftliTi) [China and Brazil jointly witnessed the official rollout of the world's first cross-sea cloud track (in Chinese)]. URL: https://wap.stockstar.com/detail/ SS2021040900001752 (access date: 30.11.2021).
37 Biyadi Zhongbiao Basi Shengbaolo Shi Guidao Jiaotong 17 Hao Xian Xiangmu (tkMÄ^feEE^
[BYD won the bid for the rail transit line 17 project in Sao Paulo, Brazil (in Chinese)]. URL: https://www.seetao.com/details/14836.html (access date: 30.11.2021).
38 Zhong QhChengjian Galunbia Dite Xiangmu Juxing Kaigong Lin Ban Qian Ishi
[Chinese enterprises undertook the construction of the Columbia Metro project held the signing ceremony of the commencement order (in Chinese)]. URL: http://shanghaibiz. sh-itc.net/article/dwtz/dwtzhwtz/202010/1503729_1.html (access date: 30.11.2021).
39 Tongxun: «Idai Ilu» Lin Agenting Telu "Chun Ho Xinsheng"
S^») [Correspondence: "One Belt One Road" brings Argentine railways "rebirth" (in Chinese)]. URL: http://www.gov.cn/xinwen/2019-04/06/content_5380031.htm (access date: 30.11.2021).
40 Chongqi Lishi Xing Te Fusu: Agentin Telu Yu Zai Gunyehua Te Xuishi
^S&^ffl^ftWÄ^) [Restarting a historic recovery: the narrative of Argentine railways and rein-dustrialization (in Chinese)]. URL: http://www.21jingji.com/2021/8-21/wNMDE1MTFfMTYyNjcwNA. html (access date: 20.11.2021).
This project became one of the examples of the successful entry of Chinese companies into Argentina under the Belt and Road Initiative. In June 2017, Argentina joined the Asian Infrastructure Development Bank41.
Figure 13. Reconstruction of the Belgrano-Kargas railway (Argentina)
Source: [http://www.poderlocal.net/]
Vigorous action by the PRC in promoting the Belt and Road Initiative cannot be called unimpeded. Many projects with Chinese participation remain until the time in the form of agreements or for various reasons, financial, domestic political, technical and reasons of "lack of a common vision" are postponed or suspended. For example, the railway projects of Pakistan with the participation of the Chinese side: the modernization of the existing railway network and the Kashgar-Gwadar railway42, etc43., after many years of negotiations, approvals and approved proj-
41 Avanza la renovación del Ferrocarril Belgrano Cargas en el Norte [The renovation of the Belgrano Cargas Railroad in the North advances (in Spanish)] URL: http://www.poderlocal.net/leer_noticias.asp? ID=87783 (access date: 30.11.2021).
42 Zhong Ba Telu [China-Pakistan Railway (in Chinese)]. URL: https://baike.baidu.com/item/ ^Btt^/4857491 (access date: 30.11.2021).
43 Zhong Ba Telu Nandu Tai Da, Bu Juyu Kexing Xing, Jianyi Fanqi (^Gtt^ffi^^, ^^W^ÍT ttt^^.^^) [The China-Pakistan railway is too difficult to be feasible, and it is recommended to abandon it (in Chinese)]. URL: https://zhuanlan.zhihu.com/p/166432506 (access date: 01.12.2021).
ects, have not yet begun to be implemented44. The events in neighboring Afghanistan in the summer of 2021 will probably also not contribute to the implementation of the Sino-Pakistani projects. The Venezuelan high-speed rail project, funded and technologically provided by China, was to be the first high-speed rail in South America. However, in the midst of a deep crisis in the Venezuelan economy, the project turned into a huge unfinished project45. The planned Malaysia-Singapore high-speed rail project has been suspended46.
As part of the Belt and Road Initiative, the internationalization of China's railway standards has yielded positive results. Many BRI rail projects have been completed and operational. China-made railway machinery and equipment are exported to more than 100 countries and regions of the world. The rapid development of China-Europe Express trains exceeded 30,000 trains by the end of September 202047, a remarkable achievement in the construction of the Belt and Track. Especially during the COVID-19 pandemic, China-Europe Express has been instrumental in helping restart operations and production and stabilize the international supply chain.
Литература / References
1. Chan T. (2017) New developments in the Belt and Road strategy and the relationship between Pearl Delta region and Hong Kong. One Belt One Road Research Institute, Chu Hai College. July 2017, Hong Kong. P. 35
2. Deng Yanting (^РйШ (2019) «Idai Ilu» by Lianmen I Yingling Xia Te Dongfei Xian-daihua Telu Hutong Hutong Jianshe.
ЖЯШ5) Xia Feizhou 2019 Nian Di 2, 3-25 (И#! 2019 ^Ш 2, 3-25) [The construction of modern railway interoperability in East Africa led by the «Belt and Road» alliance // SiaFeizhou. Issue 2, 2019. P. 3-25 (in Chinese)].
3. Gadea R. S. (^^MM SMiM) (2018) «Idai Ilu» Zai Biluy Cujin Nanmei Jichu Sheshi Ichi Hua. («—^—S#» Lading Meizhou Yanju, 2018 Nian 8 Yue Di, 40 Juan Di 4 Qi ШТШШЙ,2018 ^ 8Ш,40 Ш Ш 4 Ш [Rosario San Gadea. Belt and Road in Peru: Promoting Infrastructure Integration in South America. Ladin Meizhou Yanjiu, Aug 2018, Volume 40, Issue 4. P. 33-52 (in Chinese)].
44 Pakistan Belt and Road railway hits snag as China nixes low rate. URL: https://asia.nikkei.com/ Spotlight/Belt-and-Road/Pakistan-Belt-and-Road-railway-hits-snag-as-China-nixes-low-rate (access date: 20.11.2021).
45 Zhongguo Touzi Weineizhuila Gaote Liuchan [China's investment in Venezuela's high-speed rail aborts (in Chinese)]. URL: https://www.dw.com/zh/^|5fi8^rtSte^ ^'ift^/a-19262294 (access date: 20.11.2021).
46 Ma Xin Gaote Jihua Yaozhe (^K^^ii^J^^) [The Malaysia-Singapore high-speed rail plan died (in Chinese)]. URL: http://www.xinhuanet.com/world/2021-01/02/c_1210960571.htm (access date: 30.11.2021).
47 Guoyuan Xinwen Ban FabuJHui Jieshao Jiaotong Yunshu «shisanu» fazhan Chengju (H^ISWB
[State Council Information Office Press Conference to introduce the development achievements of transportation in the 13th Five-Year Plan (in Chinese)]. URL: http://www.gov.cn/xinwen/2020-10/22/content_5553479.htm (access date: 20.11.2021).
4. Hua Qian #) (2015) «Idai Ilu» Yu Mengu Guo «Caoyuan Zhi Lu» Te Zhanlyue Duijie Yanjiu («—^—^»^^»^¿^»Й^^^Я») Guoji Zhanwang 20 15 Nian Di 6 Qi. Di 51-65 E (ИРШМ, 2015 ^ Ш 6 ffi. Ш 51-65 [Study on the strategic docking between «One Belt One Road» and Mongolia's «Grassland Road» Guoji Zhanwang. 2015, Issue 6. P. 51-65 (in Chinese)].
ИНФОРМАЦИЯ ОБ АВТОРАХ / INFORMATION ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Семенова Нелли Кимовна - канд. Semenova Nelli K. - Cand. Sci. (Polit.),
полит. наук, ст. науч. сотр. Центра Senior Research Fellow, Economic
экономических исследований, Институт Research Department, Institute of Oriental
востоковедения Российской академии Studies of the Russian Academy of Science,
наук, Москва, Россия Moscow, Russian Federation
Раскрытие информации о конфликте интересов
Автор заявляет об отсутствии конфликта интересов.
Информация о статье
Поступила в редакцию: 10 декабря 2022. Одобрена после рецензирования: 14 января 2022. Принята к публикации: 31 января 2022. Опубликована: 29 марта 2022.
Автор прочитал и одобрил окончательный вариант рукописи.
Conflicts of Interest Disclosure
The author declares that there is no conflict of interest. Article info
Submitted: December 10, 2022. Approved after peer reviewing: January 14, 2022. Accepted for publication: January 31, 2022. Published: March 29, 2022.
The author has read and approved the final manuscript.
