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соединением двух самостоятельных слов или их основ. Также слова, произведенные путем сращения - как способы перехода в сложные слова словосочетаний. На примере некоторых из наименований диких животных, птиц и зверей мы попытались выяснить, с чем же связан такой процесс: к1алк1уч1, к1ала-к1уч1 «бабочка»; г1ужрукъ (окъ), нигинис «еж» - произошло от основ г1уж, г1ужараб «острый, колющийся» + рукъ «дом». Можем предположить, что называние связано с внешним обликом животного, как и в следующих примерах: оцх1ут1, х1ут1
Библиографический список
«жук» - основы оц «бык» + х1ут1 «насекомое, жук»; г1ондокь, беск1у «ласка»; гъалбац1, аслан «лев» - основы гъал «коса» + бац1 «волк»; кьуж, зазакъа «оса» - основы заз «жало, остриё» + къа от къазе «воткнуть» [4; 5]. В последнем примере, можем предположить, сложный процесс образования связан с действием (характеристикой), которое совершает оса. В следующем примере аналогичный случай: нусиреч, хъанхъра «паук» -основы нус(и) «сто, сотни» + реч от речизе «сплести, заплести» и т. д.
1. Котович В.Г. К вопросу о древнем земледелии и скотоводстве в горном Дагестане. Учёные записки Института ИЯЛ Даг. ФАН СССР Махачкала, 1961; Т. 9: 160 - 170.
2. Джапаридзе З.Н. Лексика животноводства (опыт расположения слов по семантическим группам на материале аварского языка). Иберийско-кавказское языкознание. Тбилиси, 1966; Т. 15.
3. Гаджиев М.Г. Древнее земледелие и скотоводство в горном Дагестане. Северный Кавказ в древности и средние века. Москва, 1980.
4. Алексеев М.Е., Атаев Б.М. Аварские названия животных общевосточнокавказского происхождения. Дагестанский лингвистический сборник. Москва, 1999; Вып. 7: 3 - 10.
5. Гарунова К.И. К овцеводческой терминологии южного наречия аварского языка. Отраслевая лексика дагестанских языков: названия животных и птиц. Махачкала, 1988.
References
1. Kotovich V.G. K voprosu o drevnem zemledelii i skotovodstve v gornom Dagestane. Uchenye zapiski Instituta IYaL Dag. FAN SSSR. МаЬ|асЬ|ка!а, 1961; T. 9: 160 - 170.
2. Dzhaparidze Z.N. Leksika zhivotnovodstva (opyt raspolozheniya slov po semanticheskim дгиррат па materiale avarskogo yazyka). Iberijsko-kavkazskoe yazykoznanie. Tbilisi, 1966; T. 15.
3. Gadzhiev M.G. Drevnee zemledelie i skotovodstvo v gornom Dagestane. SevernyjKavkaz v drevnostii srednie veka. Moskva, 1980.
4. Alekseev M.E., Ataev B.M. Avarskie nazvaniya zhivotnyh obschevostochnokavkazskogo proishozhdeniya. Dagestanskij lingvisticheskij sbornik. Mos^, 1999; Vyp. 7: 3 - 10.
5. Garunova K.I. K ovcevodcheskoj terminologii yuzhnogo narechiya avarskogo yazyka. Otraslevaya 1еквка dagestanskih yazykov: nazvaniya zhivotnyh iptic. Mahachkala, 1988.
Статья поступила в редакцию 17.01.18
УДК 821
Bajora A.F., doctoral postgraduate, Department of Global Studies, Shanghai University (Shanghai, China),
E-mail: [email protected]
CHINA AND CHINESE IN NICOLAE SPATARU'S EYES. Nicolae Milescu was one of the great travelers, adventurers and scholars of his time. He had a spectacular political and diplomatic career. After traveling to China, N. Milescu wrote a number of important works, which are still topical today. The most important is "Description of China". He was deeply impressed by the achievements of the Chinese civilization, which he gives his particular consideration.
Key words: Nicolae Milescu Spataru, ambassador with special missions, diplomatic mission, Qing Dynasty, Russian Empire, China, Manchuria, Moldova.
А.Ф. Бажора, докторант каф. мировых исследований, Шанхайский государственный университет,
E-mail: [email protected]
КИТАЙ И КИТАЙЦЫ В РАБОТАХ ПУБЛИЦИСТА Н.Г. МИЛЕСКУ-СПАФАРИЯ
Николай Милеску-Спафарий, был одним из великих путешественников, авантюристов и учёных своего времени. У него была захватывающая политическая и дипломатическая карьера. Поехав в Китай, Николай Милеску написал ряд важных работ, которые актуальны до сегодняшнего дня. Самое важное - «Описание Китая». Он был глубоко впечатлен достижениями китайской цивилизаций, которым он уделил особое внимание. В работе приводятся описания Николая Милеску-Спафарий таких сфер жизни Китая, как образование, армия, религия, биология, культура, коммерция. Путешественнику особенно точно удалось описать своеобразие и псецифиуц данной страны, её достижения в различных сферах.
Ключевые слова: Николай Гаврилович Милеску-Спафарий; Посол с специальными миссиями; Дипломатическая миссия; Династия Цин; Российская империя; Китай; Маньчжурия; Молдова.
Nicolae Spataru Milescu was fascinated by Chinese civilization. He remarks "the country is not so big, but is full of towns and people; by this consideration China is unique in the world. And if a great wall surrounded the country, it might appear that China is one city" [1 p.33]. He was much impressed by the Chinese Great Wall, mention that "the wall is a grandiose work and extraordinary and if it was known in ancient times, certainly it would be included to the Seven Wonders of the World" [1, p. 73]. And at that time "the wall was in good condition the same as at the when it was built, only in some places in the mountains it was crumbling" [2, p. 222]. And in the world don't exist another country such as China where the rulers strive to manage the state better and in justice. This is because Chinese philosophers toiled to find the best way ruled and cared without misunderstanding their country.
The kingdom is happy there the philosophers carry the country and the emperor leads like a philosopher, because it possesses the kingdom with great wisdom and understanding"[2, p. 47]. China
was very rich, "the revenue of Chinese khan was very large near 60,000,000 ducats per year, and this together with all the expenses approximates 150. 000. 000 ducats [2, p. 47]. But the emperor couldn't take money from the treasury without the knowledge of treasurer.
Nicolae Milescu's admiration of The Chinese People is obvious. He was impressed by their skills and works: temples, statues [3, p. 218], gates and gardens. He spoke about the fields which he saw on his way "there are so much food and the land is so well ploughed that I could not see the heaths where the cattle are grazed. Chinese have the ability to work incessantly... It's hard to describe how they work their plains, fields and cities... "The fields are worked everywhere, you can't see this in another country; where the plains are more expansive and worked than in China, even on the highest mountains they disseminate wheat. Chinese soil "is like a precious stone in a ring" because where barren sand is; there Chinese make them fertile through their craftsmanship [3, p. 31 - 32].
Chinese towns have different size and are square in plan; the most important of them are surrounded with walls. But the gates are not equipped with mobile bridges as Germany. Inside the cities are many sumptuous palaces, public buildings and residential houses, which are not beautiful, but keep cool in the summer.
In Chinese cities are many parks and gardens where they build wonderful arches the same as old Romans in honor of the far-famed emperors. Bridges, roads, and public ways are very nice and well arranged, everywhere even on inaccessible mountains; their construction leaves a deep impression, because it is unique to this nation [1, p. 66 - 67].
China was the richest country in the world, because here grows everything necessary for human life and satisfaction [1. P. 36]. There are also canals and rivers with ships of various types, size and destination, outnumbering those in other countries. And Chinese oarsman are more formidable then Europeans, because row more and their sculls (a type of oar) never leave the water. [1, p.70] Finally Milescu explained "the plenty of China is because the land doesn't naturally provide so much, there are many rivers and the people work hard [1, p. 38].
Education
Milescu emphasizes that as Chinese respect the education and erudition, in his mind all the Chinese were literate [1, p.56], of course this affirmation is erroneous, but this situation shows that in China of that time many more people were educated than in Moldova or other European countries. Milescu thinks that society's respect and honor for Chinese scholars (even if they come from poor families) issues from the difficulties to study the Chinese writing system [1, p. 59].
Chinese doctors have more knowledge than even European doctors healing better more serious diseases. Regarding the doctor alchemists Milescu affirm "they are charlatans as those from Europe". [1, p. 106]. In addition he mentioned many thermal springs and curative soils [1, p. 56].
Chinese respect science more than Europeans, altogether it is still undeveloped there... however Chinese are very smart and Jesuits translated into Chinese several books of arithmetic and land measurement, which Chinese had studied" [2, p. 347]. The emperor also was interested in science "the Khan [emperor] wanted to know if Nicolae MilescuSpataru studied philosophy, mathematic and trigonometry, the Moldovan answered that he has forty years of academic pursuit and the Jesuits know better his knowledge in those science because they had talked often about it [2, p. 33].
Society
At that time China already was overpopulated "here the people live everywhere: on settlements, routes and rivers. [2, p.34] Not incidentally Portuguese (the first who came to China) asked if Chinese women bore ten children at once [2, p. 35].
Nicolae Milescu saw the cause of the overpopulation in long continuance of the country and because here epidemics or other diseases are not familiar occurrences. He noted "that if there weren't wars between them, it would be impossible for so many people to live together". [2, p. 33, 35] He noted right that regions from the East are much more populated than the West, because of the Tatars (Mongols) raids in the past [2, p. 359].
Chinese are not brave, but they are wise and much clever then Europeans, but also, they are crafty, liars, cunning, false, swindlers, suspicious and enjoy tempting foreigners. As an example of show how they excel in wisdom they are also inconsistent, always looking for the way to earn more. Nicolae MilescuSpataru and his people did trade with mandarin servants also were often robbed [2, p. 353] and deceived [1, p. 53].
Anthropologically Chinese have lively bodies, walk for long periods and wear habiliments, in summer they walk naked from the waist up and sat in the sun without hats. They are healthy people, hard workers, so there aren't many sick people and beggars, paralyzed and begging. Chinese are very economical, waking up and starting work early in the morning, they scrutinize everything and they aren't ashamed to make commerce with any sort of trinket [1, p. 54] From their nature they love goodness and those who do this. They are very prudent in committing misdoing. They surpass all people by honoring their parents and teachers. Acts and words which show cruelty or anger are very humiliating for Chinese. For this reason, they always hide their anger and hatred and their behavior are falsified and never carry any weapon with them. Science has a higher price than weapons [1, p. 55] Chinese respect honors and decent behavior, among them and public affairs more than all the nations, to meet and always give the place of honor to most aged people. Their speeches are
kindly and they often visit each other; in goings-on and attitude they are very modest.
Crying on the street, walking about drunk or give a wink for Chinese are bad sign of depraved people, and you cannot hear curses [1, p. 60] About local women Milescu said that they are much shorter than their men and their face are clean and beautiful. But for Chinese a sign of beauty is not a woman's face but her small feet. The Moldovan disagreed with this horrible practice and he couldn't understand how "these wise people invented a habit as cruel as stunting the legs of women, and for this they endure a terrible torment" [1, p. 61].
Chinese match-making"is different from ours, those from poor families buy their wife from a girl's parents and when he doesn't want her no longer he sells her to another, although nobles don't usually practice this. The husband and girl's parents give them a dowry, and the young espoused would not see each until the wedding. Men may keep many mistresses; by their nature Chinese men are very jealous and keep their women lock up in the house,[1, p. 158] different then Manchurians, because their women had more freedom and respect [2, p. 100] For Chinese people infertility in women in that time was regarded as villainy.
In his description about Chinese women N. M. Spataru mentioned "the most beautiful woman in China are in Shanxi province" [1, p. 70] Interesting information is related about fashion and head - dress "Chinese don't cut their hair, they would just tie it up in a topknot, on head they put knitted rush hats and dress clothes by rank. Usually men's clothes are large as their sleeves. During ceremonies they dress in clothes that seem to be old-fashioned for Milsescu, Chinese like black and cherry color and yellow is only for the royal house [1, p.61-62]. The Manchurians wear their Mongolian vestments according by their own tradition [2, p. 80 - 81]. N.M. Spataru observed many similitude's between Turkish and Manchurians "they [Manchurians] also celebrate New Year in the beginning of March the same as Turks, and not only that, they and all their traditions are Asian and Turkish both, their homes and how they sit and eat, food and beverage, clothes, except that Turks haven't hats and Manchurians don't hide their women.
Manchurians are polite in speech and their clothes are simple, however under their modesty they hide a big vanity, because they consider that they are a superior people and their habits are above those of all other people.
Army
Until the Manchurian occupation the Chinese could not recruit a large number of soldiers exceeding 100,000 and even though they were provided with musketry and cannon, it was badly organized and its soldiers didn't have competent military skills, because Chinese people liked to live in peace and hated military affairs... their nature is not oriented to weapons and war, but to agriculture, trade etc.
Special skills of Chinese soldiers are military calculation and they also fight better at sea than on land [2, p. 186]. The inhabitants from the Northern provinces are better warriors than the southerners, in Moldova it was the reverse. Liaoning people are characterized as "harsh and powerful, with a square face and good military skills, because they fought for a protracted period with their Manchurians neighbors, and then started to conquer China together. The people from Shandong province, Jinhua and Hangzhou city also put up a big resistance against the Manchurian army [2, p. 181].
As regards the Manchurian's army Milescu informed us it has the same structure as their Chinese counterpart, because they are neighbors, but their soldiers are more rowdy and hard, there are familiar with arms from an early age.
Although Manchurian men are stronger than Chinese, and more agile, however Manchurians are not as strong or daring as Europeans. He believed that when some of his people from a deputation told to him how one hundred Russian Cossacks colonists defied one thousand of Manchurian soldiers near the Amur River [2, p. 258 -267].
Nicolae Milescu often made difference between Manchurians and local Chinese, but Manchu's population slowly started to assume all Chinese traditions and systems to lead and administrate the newly occupied country. Even emperor is originating from north barbarian tribes, but he achieved Chinese culture and customs, he also appreciated the overseas savants and he also had heard many good things about Nicolae MilescuSpataru wisdom, or in that time Manchu's unsophisticated traditions still persisted.
The Jesuits Ferdinand Verbist told to Milescu "If at the beginning the monarchs agreed to receive the Moldovan in person, so the emperor ordered an investigation into the old books and manuscripts, to see if the khans before him received or not the letters thorough
messengers, and if the emperor was willing to do this thing, the тшп-darin advisers obstinately refused to viotate the old Chinese custom [1, p. 250 - 253].
The new rulers were unwilling to change the old Chinese impe-па! traditions so as not to provoke the obedient ^а! people. People there аге very traditionalist and also Manchu's preferred to keep the prestige of the old Chinese kingdom. There is not doubt the big mandarins and emperor advisers mostly came from the local Han nationality [1, p. 91] because Manchurians were more accustomed to war than to study. In th^t time life of the Manchurians in China was the same as old Spartans in Peloponnese. So according to security protocol the Manchurians imposed the local Chinese and merchants from other Asian countries should live separately. With the later outside of Beijing, with the only exception being Europeans diplomats [1, p. 43], since they didn't present а danger to the administration, because they were sm^ll numbers and always under supervision.
Religion
The religions and religious ideas that existed in СЬта during the Manchurians conquest were fundamentally the same as the present. N.M. Spataru informs us about Confucianism, Buddhism and Dao-ism (he called it epicurean) religious currents still existing in Ch™. Personally, Nicolae Milescu appreciated Confucianism doctrine and disliked Daoism, in his opinion "it is composed of the worst scraps from а!1 religions which exist in СЬ|та," because they practice m^gic, witchcraft and incantation [2, p. 221].
In his diplomatic mission to Beijing Nicole Milescu saw а lot of temples and statues dedicated to а goddess, and "in the middle of them was Buddha holding the globe, the same as а world ruler" [2, p. 231]. Nicole Milescu а^ compared the temples in Chinese hamlets with our chapels [1, p. 43 - 44]. Moldovan diplomats mentioned Chinese freedom in religion matters "people always believe in what they like and accept any kind of religion suable for their self, because they practice religious tolerance" [1, p. 68].
Chinese аге characterized as very superstitious and believe in the supernatural, although they cheat them, but they still believe in them as God. The people аге incessantly interfering with such lies [1, p. 68] About digging graves in the rock or on hills, in the Ambassador's mind "this is а crazy thing discovered by а loral philosopher and then he taught Chinese to humble and to honor the departed (deceased) [1, p. 105].
Description of Ch^ го^а^ impoi^^ information about Christen^y in China in the second h^lf of 17th century. Nicole MilescuSpataru was convinced that, the origin of Chris^n^ in Ch^ had long history and is derived from orthodox rites. Corresponding with holly tradition the first who taught and spread Christianity in China was Saint Thomas; one of Jesus' disciples.
Because The ambassador heard about а funeral stele dated with 650 CE Osng Dynasty), which was discovered fifty years before his mission to Ch^, on th^t stone were engraved а name list of the Christian bishops and priests, and he was convinced that the people were descendants of St. Thomas the Apostle's disciples [1, p. 105]. The Moldovan rented that Chinese know the Christian tradition well, because many Catholic Jesuits and the number of catholic adherents lived here, their number steadily growing, but he hoped th^t in future China would become an Orthodox country [1, p. 171]. According to Milescu, Catholicism was widespread throughout the country and its adherents constituted approximate 100, 000, in Beijing alone at the height of the Qin empire there was 20, 000.
Some Chinese communities were entirely ^^а^ for example Songjiang city (now Shanghai) had m^ny Catholic Church and more th^n 20,000 believers and many wholly Catholics villages [1, p. 107].
The ethnic composition of Christians was heterogeneous, it was consisted by European Jesuits and Chinese adherents, "In Xian there was а church that both Chinese and Tatars attended in great numbers, where they received Christian confession" [1, p. 213]. Even the test emperor mother, wife, children and his servants accepted Catholicism [2, p. 331].
In Ch™ also existed а sm^ll Orthodox Christian community, it was consisted by 13 Russians. [2, p. 90] Besides Christianity, Ch™ was also an important ^1атю center with the Muslim community composed of Qizilbash, Bukharans, Tatars, Turks, Arabians, etc. They were merchants and lived outside of Beijing, where they h^d seven mosques [2, p. 213].
Biology
Nicole Milescu h^d knowledge about fiora and fauna, He describes m^ny kinds of species and plants which he saw in Ch™
or heard from others travelers: "We entered in a forest, where cherry, wild grapes and peach trees grew. There were also oak trees, elm and firs, and many other trees unknown to us" [1, p. 103]. Often Nicolae Milescu mentioned medicinal plants ginseng and rhubarb [2, p. 323] aromatic flowers, black and sugar cane etc. Even in king's garden were cultivated melons [1, p. 107].
We also find interesting information about the plants which produce psychotropic effects "in the mountains near Xian city grow a variety of grass if someone eats it immediately banishes all tribulation, and produces ecstasy and laughter [1, p. 66]. In China before habited many wild animals and birds as pheasant, elephant, rabbit, parrots, deer, rhino, yak and bears etc., And in the southern provinces of China being many exotics wild animals such as crocodiles [1, p. 62].
Culinary
Nicolae MilescuSpataru prizes Chinese cuisine "that is varied and tasty. Chinese don't use their hands when eat, they use chopsticks and eat very clean from their dishes.
Compared to other Asian inhabitants, Chinese have chairs and tables covered with tablecloths the same as Germans in Europe. However, Nicolae Milescu believes that Europeans took this habit from China, because they are older than all the European peoples [1, p. 62]. In China the alcoholic beverages are made from rice and all the drinks they consume are hot drinks, wine, tea, water etc. Drinking hot beverages for Chinese is a habit gained in childhood, it keeps them healthy, quenches thirst, kidney stones are uncommon, and in generally they are healthier than Europeans [1, p. 100].
Chinese are not wine makers, but they dry the grapes and then sell them [1, p. 98], because for them rice wine is sufficient [1, p. 100]. Instead the catholic Jesuits in Shanxi province made a good grape wine, and then sent it across China to their churches [2, p. 349]. And Nicolae Milescu appreciated the taste of Chinese grapes wine from Kangxi imperial court [1, p. 62]. However the teas in China are very popular, but there are also some difference in the way they prepare it: "Chinese boil the tea with pure water, and the Manchus conquerors boil the tea with milk, butter, flour and salt, the same as Mongolians" [2, p. 218].
Nicolae Milescu mentions about Chinese sweetened vegetables the same as nowadays, which the diplomat had the opportunity to taste in Beijing. The people there eat turtle meat, etc., usually this practice is strange to us [1, p. 37]. The people there raise cattle, but they raise pigs in every house any time over winter and summer, and pork meat there is sweeter than ours. Rich Chinese noblemen also eat dog meat and bear paws, which is more expensive then another meat, because they considering it a delicacy. Chinese like consume many kinds of poultry and vegetables, which is more diverse than in Europe? And many people there eat only vegetables [1, p. 37]. There are also many sea and fresh water fish, the preserve them in ice, salt or dry them the same as in other countries [1, p. 38]. In China are all kinds of fruit and nuts with the exception of olives and almonds [1, p. 100].
Commerce
China had much natural recourse and people had been exploring them since ancient times. The important ores which were extracted were mercury, red copper and yellow, from iron Chinese fashioned bells, cannons, boilers, etc... And the coal from Shanxi Province was sold throughout the country [1, p. 100]. The residents near the seaside extracted the salt from sea water by boiling it, and many of people got rich doing this business.
As concerns Chinese development at that time the author says "Tianjin is the most important port of China, because it is located near the capital city. Incredibly at times there were more than 20,000 ships filled with local and foreign merchandise [1, p. 113]. To this trade center for Chinese western and northern countries and neighbors of Succi city of Shaanxi province, there came many foreign merchants from Bukhara, Turkey and Russia where they bought rhubarb (The second half of the 17th century.)
The port Macao, built on an island on which the Chinese authorities had allowed the Portuguese to settle to dicker was a important center for commerce with overseas. At that time [2, p. 204]. Macao was known as the richest city in India and China [1, p. 301]. Concerning Chinese silver which was used as the monetary equivalent of exchange, Nicolae Milescu warns "the silver quality is low because it is debased with copper and tin, and in China there isn't a commandment from the emperor about this such as in other countries [1, p. 39]. Chinese accumulate the gold and silver over the naturally impure gold, because digging for the ore is punishable by death [1, p. 39]. Despite of many measures to prevent it, forgery
