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Оригинальная статья / Original article УДК 902
DOI: https://doi.org/10.21285/2415-8739-2021-2-51-71
Child burials at the funeral and memorial site Khuzhur 4 (Olkhon region) © Artur V. Kharinskiia'b, Maria G. Konushkinaa, Samdantsoodol Orgilbayarc
a Irkutsk National Research Technical University, Irkutsk, Russian Federation b Irkutsk State University, Irkutsk, Russian Federation c Ulaanbaatar State University, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia
Abstract: During the 2013 archaeological excavations in the Olkhon region, on the southwestern shore of the Maloye More Strait in Lake Baikal, several artificial stone structures were discovered. They were located in the northern part of the funeral site Khuzhur 4 funeraral site. Most of them (four child burials and eight memorial structures) date back to the 19th century. Two types of structures were found: the ground-based type was in the form of quadrangular stone boxes attached to the rock outcrop in the southeast (Khagun type) (complex 3), and the ground one covered with a round or oval construction (Kurkut type) (complexes 5, 13 and 15). At complexes 13 and 15, there were fragments of wooden poles covering the pit. The buried were placed on their backs with their heads towards the north-east. Accompanying items were found only in the burial of a 78-year-old girl (complex 3). Beads, one ring and one chain were found in her grave. In other burials, there were no items. The child burial ground was built by Khuzhur-Nogui inhabitants, who belonged to the Shono Ekhirit family. Like representatives of other Buryat clans, they buried their dead to the north of their settlements, on hillsides, orienting their heads to the north -northeast, towards the "land of the dead". Separate child burials and no accompanying items in most of them indicate a special role of children in society.
Keywords: Olkhon region, funeral and memorial complex, child burials, tombstone structure, remains of the buried, accompanying inventory, soul, afterlife, funeral rite, Buryats, Ekhirites
For citation: Kharinskii A.V., Konushkina M.G., Orgilbayar S. (2021) Child burials at the funeral and memorial site Khuzhur 4 (Olkhon region). Izvestiya Laboratorii drevnikh tekhnologii = Reports of the Laboratory of Ancient Technologies. Vol. 17. No. 2. P. 51-71. (In Russ.). https://doi.org/10.21285/2415-8739-2021-2-51-71
Детские захоронения погребально-поминального комплекса
Хужур 4 (Приольхонье)
© А.В. Харинский"'b, М.Г. Конюшкина'', С. Оргилбаярс
a Иркутский национальный исследовательский технический университет, г. Иркутск, Россия b Иркутский государственный университет, г. Иркутск, Россия с Улан-Баторский государственный университет, Улан-Батор, Монголия
Аннотация: В 2013 г. в Приольхонье, на юго-западном берегу пролива Малое Море озера Байкал в ходе спасательных археологических работ было раскопано несколько искусственных конструкций из камня, расположенных в северной части погребально-поминального комплекса Хужур 4. Среди исследованных конструкций большинство составляли объекты, датировавшиеся XIX в. Они включали 4 детских погребения и 8 поминальных сооружений. Для захоронения использовались конструкции двух типов - наземные в виде четырехугольных каменных ящиков, пристроенные к скальному выходу с юго-восточной стороны (хагунский тип) (комплекс № 3), и грунтовые, перекрытые сверху круглой или овальной каменной кладкой (куркутский тип) (комплексы № 5, 13 и 15). В комплексах № 13 и 15 отмечены фрагменты деревянных жердей, перекрывавших яму. Погребенные располагались вытянуто на спине головой на северо-восток. Сопроводительный инвентарь обнаружен только в погребении девочки 7-8 лет (комплекс № 3). Он включал бусины, бисер, перстень-печатку и цепь. В остальных захоронениях вещи отсутствовали. Детский могильник был сооружен жителями Хужур-Ногуйского улуса, принадлежавшими к эхиритскому роду шоно. Как и представители других бурятских родов, они хоронили своих покойников к северу от поселения, на склоне возвышенности, ориентируя умерших головой
на север - северо-восток, по направлению к «стране мертвых». Наличие отдельного могильника для детей, а также отсутствие в большинстве захоронений сопроводительного инвентаря свидетельствовали об их особом положении в обществе, что нашло отражение и в погребальном ритуале.
Ключевые слова: Приольхонье, погребально-поминальный комплекс, детские захоронения, надмогильная конструкция, останки погребенного, сопроводительный инвентарь, душа, загробная жизнь, погребальный обряд, буряты, эхириты
Для цитирования: Харинский А.В., Конюшкина М.Г., Оргилбаяр С. Детские захоронения погребально-поминального комплекса Хужур 4 (Приольхонье) // Известия Лаборатории древних технологий. 2021. Т. 17. № 2. С. 51-71. https://doi.org/10.21285/2415-8739-2021-2-51-71
Introduction
Burials are one of the most informative sources of information about the past, covering different aspects of life of human communities. The materials collected in the study of burials can be used to describe biological characteristics, diseases, food, social status and other aspects, including ideas about the transition from the world of the living to the world of the dead. Due to the economic development of new territories, the volume of archaeological works on ancient burials has increased. One of the areas where these works were performed in the 2010s is the Olkhon region located in the central part of the western coast of Lake Baikal.
The Khuzhir-Nuge Bay coast, located in the southwestern part of the Maloye More Strait in Lake Baikal, is one of the most developed areas of the Olkhon region. A number of burials from the Neolithic period to the beginning of the XX century were excavated in this area (Goryunova, Svinin, 1996; Goryunova, 1997; Kharinskii, 2001b; Novikov, Weber, Goryunova, 2010). The archaeological site Khuzhur 4, which includes burial and memorial structures from the 19th century, is one of them. Materials collected can complement ideas about burial rituals of the Olkhon Buryats.
The article aims to introduce new data on funeral rituals of the Olkhon Buryats into scientific circulation and to interpret these data considering the known information about sacred ideas of Baikal inhabitants.
The burial and memorial site Khuzhur 4 is located in the central part of the Olkhon region (Irkutsk region), 2.3 km southwest of Sarma village, among the inter-ridge depressions of the upper part of the northern slope of the Khuzhir-Nuge valley (Fig. 1). The site
was isolated as an archaeological object in 2008 by G.V. Turkin and V.S. Nikolaev1. In 2011, when part of its territory, including 18 artificial stone structures, was transferred to the farm by S.A. Grebenshchikov, it was examined by A.V. Kharinskii.
In order to collect lost information about the ancient population of the Baikal region, phased excavations of all artificial structures found on the territory of the farm were carried out in 2011 and 2013. All artificial stone structures were excavated.
Four artificial stone structures can be divided into two groups: burial and memorial structures. The first category includes structures, under which human remains were found. The second group includes structures under which no human remains were found. It is difficult to determine the function of each artificial structure without excavation; therefore, the term "site" is used to designate them. Most sites date back to the 19th century. They include four Buryat child burials (complexes 3, 5, 13, 15) and eight Buryat child cenotaphs or afterbirth burials (complexes 4, 6-12) located along the ridge of rocks towards the southwest - northeast line.
Archaeological materials
Complex 3 was located in the western part of Khuzhur 4, at the southeastern foot of the ridge of rocks. The burial structure was made in the form of a quadrangular stone box attached to the rocks stratified into several vertical slabs (Fig. 2). The stone box
1 Türkin G.V., Nikolaev V.S. Archaeological expert assessment of the territory within the Khuzhir-Nuge (Olkhon district, Irkutsk region). Irkutsk, 2008. Archive of the Department for the protection of cultural heritage in Irkutsk region. 197 s.
Fig. 1. Location of the funeral and memorial complex Khuzhur 4 Рис. 1. Расположение погребально-поминального комплекса Хужур 4
Fig. 2. Khuzhur 4, complex 3, the structure after clearing Рис. 2. Хужур 4, комплекс № 3, кладка после расчистки
was supported by horizontal slabs. The structure was 3.0 x 2.5 m in size oriented along the azimuth of 55°. The southeastern wall was formed by two vertical stone slabs parallel to the rock ridge at a distance of 30 cm. The length of the southwestern slab was 1 meter, the height was 30-35 cm, the thickness was 6-8 cm; the length of the northeastern slab was 0.8 m, the height was 30 cm, and the width was 5-8 cm. The northeastern slab extended beyond the southwestern one from the outside. The southeastern slab was supported by smaller stone slabs. In the lower part of the crepidoma, there were horizontal slabs. Above them, there were several stone slabs located at an angle of 75° to the wall. Their lower edge rested against the wall, and the upper one was directed outward. The outer crepidoma of the southeastern wall had 2-3 layers of stone slabs located horizontally at the base and 3-4 layers of inclined slabs overlapping them (Fig. 3.1-3).
The northeastern wall consisted of three stone slabs. The southwestern one was inclined towards the camera. The tilt angle was 65°. The outer side of the southwestern slab supported the base of the middle slab. It was inclined outward at an angle of 50° and rested against the northeastern slab with its upper edge. The upper edge of the outer slab was inclined at an angle of 20° towards the side opposite to the burial chamber. The inner slab was 25 x 36 cm in size, the middle one was 36 x 40 cm in size, and the outer one was 45 x 78 cm in size.
The southwestern wall was composed of five rows of stone slabs inclined inwardly at an angle of 60°. The slabs were located on the side face; their dimensions varied from 32 x 50 cm to 40 x 110 cm. The stones of the southwestern wall overlapped the outer edge of the horizontal slabs located in the upper part of the burial chamber. Most overlapping slabs were missing by the time of excavations, which violated the burial's integrity. Some slabs survived only in the southwestern part of the chamber. Several horizontal slabs were located on the rocky ridge on the southwest side of the chamber.
A bronze signet with floral ornaments was found on one of the stones that covered the burial chamber (Fig. 3.9). In the upper part of the burial chamber, be-
low the floor slabs, 42 beads were found. One white spherical glass bead with a diameter of 1.1 cm (Fig. 3.4) was found in the northern part of the chamber. A cluster of beads was found 20 cm southwest: one dark blue spherical transversely compressed glass bead 8 mm in diameter and 6 mm in height (Fig. 3.5) and 8 tin gray cylindrical transversely compressed beads 7-8 mm in diameter and 4 mm in height (Fig. 3.6). One more cluster was found 23 cm southwest. It consisted of 5 pewter (Fig. 3.7) and glass small beads (Fig. 3.8). The small beads were round, barrel-shaped with a diameter of 3-4 mm and a height of 2-3 mm (six red beads, one white bead, two blue beads, and seventeen yellow beads). One dark blue globular bead was found 7 cm southwest of the second cluster of beads. It was similar to the one from the northeastern cluster. Beads were found on the same level. At the bottom of the burial chamber, the human remains were found. Most of the bones were missing. Only the left femur and tibia have survived. They belonged to a child aged 7-82, and were in anatomical order. The deceased was placed on his back with his head towards the northeast. Near the inner side of the femur epiphysis, a fragment of the iron chain 4 cm long was found. It consisted of 12 round links 6 mm in diameter, 2 mm wide and 1 mm thick (Fig. 3.10). The items found indicate that the burial belonged to a girl. The human remains were located in a pit 0.25 x 1.90 m in size and 30 cm deep, dug at the rock ridge foot. The burial chamber slabs were installed along the pit edges. The dimensions of the burial chamber were 30 x 160 cm with a height of 40 cm.
Complex 4 was located 9 m north-east of complex 3, southeast of the ridge of rocky outcrops. The structure was round, 1.8 m in diameter. The stones were laid in 2-3 layers. The height was 32 cm. The size of the smallest stones was 12 x 18 cm. In the center of the upper part, there were 2 large stones. One stone was cone-shaped, up to 89 x 120 cm in size; the second one was rectangular with rounded edges, 64 x 100 cm in size (Fig. 4.1, 2). The middle level of the
2 Anthropological measurements were made by Marina Rykun, Head of the Anthropology Department of the Historical Faculty, National Research Tomsk State University
Fig. 3. Khuzhur 4, complex No. 3:1 - burial chamber after stripping; 2 - cross section of the burial; 3 - longitudinal section of the burial; 4 - white glass bead; 5 - blue glass bead; 6 - tin gray bead; 7 - tin bead; 8 - small beads; 9 - bronze signet ring;
10 - iron chain
Рис. 3. Хужур 4, комплекс № 3:1 - погребальная камера после зачистки; 2 - поперечный разрез захоронения; 3 - продольный разрез захоронения; 4 - белая стеклянная бусина; 5 - синяя стеклянная бусина; 6 - оловянная серая бусина; 7 - оловянная бусина; 8 - бисер; 9 - бронзовый перстень-печатка; 10 - железная цепь
480 cm
Fig. 4. Khuzhur 4, complex 4, structure after clearing: 1, 2 - upper level; 3,4 - middle level; 5 - lower level of masonry;
6 - cross section of masonry Рис. 4. Хужур 4, комплекс № 4, кладка после расчистки: 1, 2 - верхний уровень; 3,4 - средний уровень; 5 - нижний уровень кладки; 6 - поперечный разрез кладки
structure was composed of stones with dimensions varying from 10 x 10 cm to 95 x 50 cm (Fig. 4.3, 4). The lower level was formed by a slab 0, 6 x 1.7 m in size, and 5-8 cm thick oriented along the ridge of rocky outcrops (Fig. 4.5). No artificial depressions, traces of wooden structures or human remains were found under the stone (Fig. 4.6).
Near site 4, as well as on the territory of the entire site, the following stratigraphic situation was observed (from top to bottom): 1) turf - 2-5 cm; gray sandy loam - 6-23 cm; yellow sandy loam - 7-27 cm; rock soil with gray-yellow crumbs was opened up to 10 cm. There was no artificial disturbance of the layers. The structure was made from gray sandy loam.
Complex 5 was located 2 m northeast of complex 4, southeast of the ridge of rocky outcrops. The structure was oval, 2.5 x 3.5 m in size, oriented along the azimuth of 60°. The size of the smallest stones was 20 x 17 cm, the size of the large ones was 37 x 118 cm. In the north-eastern part, the stones were laid more tightly (Fig. 5.1). This might be due slope processes, as a result of which some of the stones moved down the slope. In the northeastern part, two layers of stones were found. At the base, there were 4 stones (one large stone and three smaller ones). The large stone was 40 x 110 cm in size and 4-9 cm thick. It was oriented along the ridge of rocky outcrops (Fig. 5.2). Under the stone, there was an oval-shaped burial pit, 25 x 55 cm in size, 10 cm deep, oriented along the azimuth of 40°.
A child skeleton aged 1 year ± 4 months was found. The frontal bone was not fused, the lower jaw was fused, the incisors on the lower jaw had just erupted. The bones were located on two levels. In the upper part of the pit, there were a humerus and an ulna, frontal bones, a tibia, and a femur (Fig. 5.3, 5). Other bones were 10-15 cm below. The deceased was placed on his back with his head oriented along the azimuth of 40°. The structure was made from gray sandy loam. The pit was filled with gray sandy loam, sometimes interbedded with yellow sandy loam (Fig. 5.6).
Complex 6 was located 2 m to the east of complex 5. The masonry was pentagonal, 1.3 x 1.6 m in size, oriented along the azimuth of 10°. The stones were tightly laid in two layers. The smallest stone was 10 x 23 cm in size, and the largest one was 50 x 70 cm in size (Fig. 6.1). No artificial depressions, traces of wooden structures or human remains were found under the stones. No artificial disturbance of the geological layers was observed. The structure was made from gray sandy loam (Fig. 6.2).
Complex 7 was located 14 m north-east of complex 2 and 17 m southeast of complex 3; it adjoined a small rocky outcrop in the south-east. The structure was oval, 1.3 x 1.9 m in size, oriented along the azimuth of 50° (Fig. 6.3). In the central part, stones were laid in two layers, while along the edges - in one layer. The smallest stone was 20 x 28 cm in size; the largest one was 43 x 180 cm in size. No artificial depressions, traces of wooden structures or human remains were found under the stones. No artificial disturbance of the geological layers was observed. The structure was made from gray sandy loam (Fig. 6.4).
Complex 8 was located 12 m southeast of complex 6 and 22 m northeast of complex 7, at the southeastern foot of the ridge of rocky outcrops. The structure was formed by several slabs adjoining the rocky ridge. The ridge slabs were inclined at an angle of 25° towards the northwest (up the slope). At the rocky outcrops, there was no space to use for human burials. In the southeast, there were 6 rows of slabs located at an angle of 10-50°. The lower edge of the outer row of slabs was supported by two layers of horizontal stones 32 x 54 cm to 40 x 98 cm in size. Several slabs were horizontally laid on the rock ridge. In the northwestern part, the height was 50 cm. The structure was 2.0 x 3.2 m in size (Fig. 7.1). No artificial depressions, traces of wooden structures or human remains were found under the stones. At the foot of the ridge of rocky outcrops, the layer of gray sandy loam and the roof of yellow sandy loam were removed. The slabs were installed on the yellow sandy loam layer (Fig. 7.2).
Fig. 5. Khuzhur 4, complex 5:1 - structure after clearing, upper level; 2 - lower level of masonry: 3, 5 - remains of the buried;
4 - cross section of the complex Рис. 5. Хужур 4, комплекс № 5:1 - кладка после расчистки, верхний уровень; 2 - нижний уровень кладки: 3, 5 - останки погребенного; 4 - поперечный разрез комплекса
Fig. 6. Khuzhur 4:1, 2-complex 6; 3, 4-complex 7 Рис. 6. Хужур 4:1, 2 - комплекс № 6; 3,4 - комплекс № 7
Fig. 7. Khuzhur 4:1, 2 - complex 8; 3,4 - complex 9 Рис. 7. Хужур 4:1, 2 - комплекс № 8; 3,4 - комплекс № 9
Complex 9 was located 6 m to the north-east of complex 8, at the southeastern foot of the ridge of rocky outcrops. The structure was formed by several slabs adjoining the ridge of rocks. The structure was of a quadrangular domed shape, 2 x 2 m in size. The slabs were placed horizontally or with a slight inclination towards the rocky outcrops. In the center, the thickness was 50 cm; closer to the rocky outcrop, it was 75 cm, and at the edges it was 30 cm. It consisted of 5-7 layers of stones in the center and 3 layers of stones at the edges. Their dimensions varied from 28 x 50 m to 60 x 65 m (Fig. 7.3). At the rocky outcropping, no space that could be used for human burials or imitate them was found. No traces of wooden structures or human remains were found under the stones. At the foot of the ridge of rocky outcrops, the layers of gray and yellow sandy loam were removed which formed a hole with a diameter of 1.9 m (Fig. 7.4).
Complex 10 was located 4 m to complex 9. The structure was oval, barrow-shaped, 2 x 3 m in size, oriented along the north-south line. The highest density of stones was observed in the northern part. Its thickness was 34 cm; the stones were laid in 3-4 layers. To the south, the stones were laid in one layer. Initially the structure was round, and under the influence of slope processes, some stones slid down (Fig. 8.1, 2).
In the northern part, there were the largest stones with a dimension of 80 x 90 cm. In the south, it was overlapped by smaller stones. The smallest stones were 8 x 6 cm in size. Most of them were laid horizontally or had a small angle of inclination. Stones were inclined along the perimeter. In the west, the inclination angle was about 45°.
The lower part consisted of 8 stones laid under the northern part of the structure. It was oval barrowlike, 74 x 168 cm in size, elongated along the westeast line. The stones were laid horizontally. No artificial depressions, traces of wooden structures or human remains were found under the stones. No artificial disturbance of the geological layers was observed. The structure was made from gray sandy loam (Fig. 8.3).
Complex 11 was located 8 m to the southeast of complex 10. The structure was oval, 1.7 x 2.9 in size, oriented along the north-south line. The stones were tightly laid in 2-3 layers. In the center, the height was 10-16 cm. The stones were 10 x 6 cm to 1.2 x 0.49 m in size. Most of them were laid horizontally. Some stones along the perimeter were laid obliquely to the center at an angle of about 70-50°. Rocky outcrops approached the structure in the northwest and southwest (Fig. 8.4, 5).
The lower layer was formed by a large slab oriented along the NW-SE line. It was 1.20 x 0.70 m in size. To the north-west, there were three small stones; and in the southeast, there was one more stone. The lower layer was 0.80 x 2.15 m in size. No artificial depressions, traces of wooden structures or bone remains were found under the stones. The structure was made from the middle part of the gray sandy loam layer. No artificial disturbance of the geological layers was observed (Fig. 8.6).
Complex 12 was located 4 m to the southeast of complex 11. The structure was oval, 1.5 x 2.6 m in size, oriented along the north-south line. The strucure had 1-3 layers of stones that were laid horizontally. The thickness in the center was 20 cm. The size of the stones varied from 10 x 10 cm to 32 x 70 cm (Fig. 9.1). In the east and west, one large stone was oriented along the west-east line. At the base, under the center, there were eight stones forming an oval. To the north of the stones, an oval pit, 18 x 56 cm in size and 15 cm deep, oriented along the azimuth of 20° was found. In the central and southern parts of the pit, as well as to the southeast of the pit, there were stones forming a round layout with a diameter of 50 cm (Fig. 9.2). There were two more stones at the bottom of the pit. The first stone 25 x 33 cm in size was laid in the north, and the second one 13 x 23 cm in size was laid in the south. The remains of two poles 3 cm in diameter were found under the stones (Fig. 9.3). There were no human bones and other items in the pit. The grave was made from gray sandy loam and cut through the yellow sandy loam layer. The pit was filled with gray sandy loam (Fig. 9.4).
Fig. 8. Khuzhur 4:1-3 - complex 10; 4-6 - complex 11 Рис. 8. Хужур 4:1-3 - комплекс № 10; 4-6 - комплекс № 11
Fig. 9. Khuzhur 4:1-4 - complex 12; 5-8 - complex 13 Рис. 9. Хужур 4:1-4 - комплекс № 12; 5-8 - комплекс № 13
Complex 13 was located 2 m to the east of complex 12. The structure was oval, 1.6 x 2.0 m in size, oriented along the north-south line. The stones were horizontally laid in 1-2 layers. Its thickness in the center was 15 cm. The size of the stones varied from 10 x 14 cm to 44 x 92 cm (Fig. 9.5). At the base, under the center, there was a large slab 60 x 93 cm in size, and 3-7 cm thick (Fig. 9.6). In the east, under the stone, the remains of a pole 5 cm thick, oriented along the azimuth of 20° were found. An oval-shaped burial pit was found 13 cm to the pole, under the northwestern part of the slab. Its size was 32 x 77 cm, and depth was 12 cm; it was oriented along the southwest - northeast line.
A child skeleton aged 0-0.5 months was found in the pit. The bones were in anatomical order. The deceased was placed on his back, elongated, his skull with the facial section was turned to the right, and his arms were placed along the body. His legs were bent at the knees and laid back to the left. The body was oriented along the azimuth of 40° (Fig. 9.7). No skeletal finds were found. The grave was made from gray sandy loam and cut through the yellow sandy loam layer. It was filled with gray sandy loam (Fig. 9.8).
Complex 15 was located 23 m north-east of complex 11, at the southeastern foot of the ridge of rocky outcrops. The structure of was round barrowlike with a diameter of 2.5 m. The stones were tightly laid in 2-3 layers. In the center, the height was 30 cm. The size of the stones varied from 10 x 18 cm to 23 x 52 m. Most of them were laid horizontally. The stones along the perimeter were laid obliquely to the center at an angle of 80-40°. The rocks approached the structure in the northwest (Fig. 10.1).
The lower layer was formed by tightly laid stones, forming an oval 1.2 x 2.0 m in size. It was oriented along the azimuth of 45°. At the northeastern end, charcoal was found (Fig. 10.2). Under the stones, between the rocky outcrops, there was a grave of a quadrangular shape, 38 x 110 cm in size. Its depth was 10 cm; it was oriented along the azimuth of 65°. At the bottom, there were bones of a child aged 18 months. Femur and tibia fragments were found. The dead was placed on his back with his head towards the north-
east (Fig. 10.3). The structure was made from gray sandy loam (Fig. 10.4).
Discussion
All the burials examined at Khuzhur 4 site belonged to children aged 0.5 months to 8 years. Two types of burial structures were found: ground structures in the form of quadrangular stone boxes attached to the rocky outcrops in the south-east (complex 3), and round and oval ground structures (complexes 5, 13 and 15). The buried were placed on their backs with their heads towards the northeast. In most cases, their legs were extended; only at site 13, their legs were bent at the knees and laid back to the left. At complexes 13 and 15, fragments of wooden poles covering the pit were found. Only in the burial of a 78-year-old girl (complex 3), accompanying items (beads, a signet ring and a chain) were found. In other burials, there were no items.
The lack of items in child burials indicates the social and property status of children in society. Since children had nothing in the world of the living, in the world of the dead they were not entitled to have any things. The position of adolescents was different. There were some items in their graves. For girls, the transition to the next age group occurred earlier. According to Zhamtsarano, "young women and men were dressed ceremonially, with all the adornments" (Zhamtsarano, 2001. P. 59).
The sites, where no human remains were found, were similar in terms of their design and topographic features. At complexes 8 and 9, the structures resembled ground burials at the rocky outcrops. At complexes 4, 6, 7, and 10-12, the stone structures were similar to the ground round or oval burials. Under one of them, (complex 12), an oval pit was overlapped by longitudinal wooden poles was found. The purpose of these complexes is not clear. They might have been used for burying the placenta or have been cenotaphs of deceased children. In both cases, they can be referred to memorial structures. Due to the similarity of the stone structures, they are considered to be a single burial and memorial ensemble.
Children play a crucial role in the life of any parent. The Buryats consider many children to be happi-
Fig. 10. Khuzhur 4, complex 15:1- structure after clearing, upper level; 2 - lower level of masonry; 3 - remains of the buried;
4 - section of masonry along the north - south line Рис. 10. Хужур 4, комплекс № 15:1 - кладка после расчистки, верхний уровень; 2 - нижний уровень кладки; 3 - останки погребенного; 4 - разрез кладки по линии север - юг
ness, and parents having many children receive more reverence and respect. At the same time, the childlessness seems to be a punishment from above. Great love for children, the desire to preserve their lives with the existing high mortality rate supported the belief in various amulets and magical actions. Of the entire set of rituals and ceremonies, their attitude towards the afterbirth (toonto) was responsible, since they believed that it was a child soul. The afterbirth
was a substance that protected the life of a newborn (Skrynnikova, 2009). Therefore, the Buryats conducted the placenta burial ritual.
The afterbirth was a sacred link between the mother and her child. In order to preserve the strength of this link, the place where the afterbirth was buried was visited by parents. The magical link between the placenta and the child persisted throughout life. A child who often crawled over the
placenta burial seemed to have received its grace; it was believed that later he would be rich and happy. As an adult, he visited the placenta burial place (toonto gazar) to receive the power of communion (toonto) (Galdanova, 1987. P. 45).
The age of Khuzhur 4 burials can be determined with items found at complex 3. Among the findings, there is a bronze signet with floral ornaments (Fig. 3.9). It is a one-piece ring with a bow extending towards the bezel. The outer bow is 1.7 cm in diameter and 1 cm height. The bezel is oval, longitudinally elongated, 1.0 x 1.2 cm in size. The ornament has a longitudinal axis of symmetry. On the left side toward the center, there is an image of the pentagon with sides concave inside and two curved branches extending from the top in the opposite directions. On both sides, there is one curl whose lower end is twisted outward, while the upper end is twisted inward. There is a small rhombus above the pentagon.
Similar rings were found in different parts of Siberia due to the Russian influence. The carvings on ring bezels were made by foreign craftsmen and had local semantics. In the Olkhon region, similar items were found in Buryat burials from the first half of the 19th century on the eastern shore of the Mukhor Bay. In burial 1 of the Khagun burial ground, four rings on both hands of a buried woman were found (Zaitsev, Svinin, Kharinskii, 1994). In the burial of Manderkhan (Manderhai), two rings on both hands of the deceased were found. The engraving on one of the rings resembles the pattern similar to the one on the ring from Khuzhur 4 (Zaitsev, Kharinskii, Svinin, 1996. Fig. 4.14). In the Olkhon region, similar rings were used later. One of them was found in burial 1 of the Elga 12 burial ground on Olkhon Island. It dates back to the beginning of the 20th century; although, unlike the earlier rings, it was not solid. The bezel was soldered to it (Kharinskii, 2006. Fig. 4.4).
Among other items found at Khuzhur 4 and Manderkhan 4, there is an iron chain. At Mander-han 4, the chain was in the chest area and bent at a right angle. It consisted of 8 links 1 cm in diameter whose width and thickness was 0.4 cm (Zaitsev, Kharinskii, Svinin, 1996. Fig. 4.2). The purpose of this item is not clear. Beads found at Khuzhur 4 are similar
to the items found at Manderkhan 4 (Zaitsev, Kharin-skii, Svinin, 1996. Fig. 4.6-8) and Khaguna 1 - 1 (Zait-sev, Svinin, Kharinskii, 1994. Fig. 6.8). According to these analogies and funeral rituals, site 3 can date back to the first half of the 19th century.
At the end of the XIX century, on the shore of the Khuzhir-Nuge bay, there was the same name ulus. This name is present in the atlas compiled by the hydro-graphic expedition guided by Colonel Drizhenko. The Mukhor Bay is in the southwest (Drizhenko, 1902. Fol. 5-A)3. In earlier descriptions of the Baikal shores, the Mukhor Bay was called the Khushilku Bay. Among its main bays, the Sarma Bay - the Khuzhir-Nuge Bay -was mentioned (Semenov, Cherskii, Petts, 1895. P. 386). Representatives of the First Chernorud clan (the Shono clan) lived in the Khuzhur-Nogui (Khuzhir-Nugoi) ulus located in the same-name valley, 107 m away from the shores of Lake Baikal. Winter and summer camps and utugi were located in one place. 4 tithes of the grassland were located in the Khuzhur-Nogu valley, 11 tithes - in the Sarma valley, and 2 tithes - in the Khargoev valley (Kulakov, 1898. P. 64). According to the 1895 census, the ulus had 7 households, 18 men and 19 women lived there. Among them, there were 3 children under 7 years old, 3 boys aged 7-14, and one girl aged 7-14 (Kulakov, 1898. P. 212).
Residents of the Khuzhir-Nugo ulus (Khuzhur-Nogu) located in the middle part of the valley buried their dead on its northern slope, northeast of the ulus. This topography of burials is due to the ideas about the place where souls live after death. The Buryats usually buried their dead in the north of their settlements, while the funeral ceremony was not supposed to cross water barriers (Mikhailov, 1980. P. 246). For the Olkhon Buryats, who belonged to the Ekhirit clan, the "land of the dead" was located in the northeast or east (Manzhigeev, 1978. P. 54-55); therefore, the cemetery was oriented towards the north-east or east. The northern side associated with the world of the dead was considered to be dangerous (Zhamba-lova, Suvorova, 2017. P. 78).
3 Drizhenko F.K. (1902) Atlas of Lake Baikal [Maps] / comp. a hydrographic expedition under the command of Colonel Drizhenko. Sainkt-Petersburg: typolit. M. M., 1902. 1 atl. (32 ed. l.) (In Russ.).
At the initial stage of the journey to the "land of the dead", a natural object towering over the surrounding area (e.g., a hill) was of great importance. It served as a bridge over which the soul ascended to heaven and moved in the right direction. The rocky ridge, framing the pad from the north and towering over Lake Baikal by more than 150 m, served as a bridge. The heads of all the dead were oriented towards the north-east -towards the hill and the "land of the dead".
According to the traditional views of the Buryats, categories such as life force (sulde), soul-breath (amin), soul-shadow (hunehen) are associated with human life. After death, humans lose their sulde and breath (amin), and their souls (hunehen) are separated from the body. G.R. Galdanova believes that the idea about three types of soul (good, middle, and bad) is based on the concepts of sulde, amin, and hunehen. After death, the sulde becomes a genius-keeper of the family and clan; the sulde is a good soul, since it participates in the life -death - life cycle. After death, the sulde "returns" to the nature from which it came, the birth of humans and animals depends on its presence. The amin and hune-hen are associated with the world of the dead: the bad soul is a guarder of bones, the middle soul goes to the world of the dead and becomes a boholdoy (Galda-nova, 1987. P. 54). Like the sacred substance Chula in the Altaians, the sulde was in the human head (Pota-pov, 1991. P. 49; Galdanova, 1987. P. 49; Skrynnikova, 2009); therefore, after death, the journey to the "land of the dead" starts from the head.
According to the Ungin Buryats, humans have three souls. The good soul (hain hungheng) is a hare that cares about the human. The middle soul (dunda hungheng) leaves the body in sleep and wanders everywhere. If spirits catch it and put it in prison, the human gets sick or even dies. The third soul (mu hong-heng) never leaves the body. This soul never does good. When the human sleeps, this soul leaves the body and crushes it. "After death, the good soul ascends to heaven; the middle soul becomes a spirit and wanders around the earth; the third soul is always near the body, and when the body decays, the bones are destroyed and the soul becomes a whirlwind (hi-huy)" (Khangalov, 2004. P. 30-31).
B.B. Bambaev reports that "the Buryats orient heads of their dead towards the northeast because the dead must go to Erlik Khan, who lives in the east or in the northeast" (cited from Zhambalova, Suvorova, 2017. P. 40). According to the beliefs of the Kudin Buryats, the main soul is Altan Hongkhen located in the head (Petri, 1928. P. 42); therefore, after death, in order to facilitate its journey to the afterlife, the dead was placed with his head towards the "land of the dead".
In the Olkhon region, each Buryat clan had special burial places, while their dead were buried (Zhamba-lova, 2000. P. 290). The Buryats considered it a sin to bury their relatives in a new place, because they did not like to be alone and could take living people with them. Graves or coffins were considered to be a home for souls (Khangalov, 2004. P. 35).
Among the burials from the 19th century excavated in the Olkhon region, where the dead were placed on their backs with their heads towards the north - northeast, there are two types of burial structures - ground ones in the form of quadrangular stone boxes attached to the rock, and round or oval ones. The second ones are Kurkut type burials (Kharinskii, 2001a. P. 114). The first ones are Khagun type burials (Kharin-skii, 2001a. P. 100). In both types, males and females of different age groups were found. Ethnically, they belonged to the Ekhirit clan. The Buryats of nine Ekhirit clans lived in the Kutul and Yelantsin councils located in the Olkhon region and established in 1890 after the division of the Olkhon Steppe Duma. The Yelantsy department included the second, third, fourth and fifth Chernorud clans (Shono clan) and sedentary aliens from Tyrga and Kuzhertui. The first and sixth Chernorud, Khenkhedor (the Hengelder clan) and the first and second Abyzaev clans (the Abzai clan) lived on the territory of the Kutul Council (Kulakov, 1898. P. 15-16).
The Olkhon Ekhirite burial structures were similar. Kurkut and Khagun burials where representatives of the Abzai clan were buried (Kazantsev, Khoroshikh, 1962; Kharinskii, 1997, 2006; Gromasheva, 1998), and burials from the mainland part of the Kutul council, where representatives of the Shono clan lived (Dashibalov, Vo-ronin, 1982; Zaitsev, Svinin, Kharinskii, 1994; Zaitsev, Kharinskii, Svinin, 1996; Pavlutskaya, 1996, Tarasevich, 1996, Kharinskii, 1997) were similar. There was no dif-
ference in the items found in the island and mainland burials. In this regard, it is difficult to explain the synchronous existence of two different types of burial structures.
Conclusion
The study of the Khuzhir-Nuge burial and memorial sites dating back to various periods showed that most of them were localized on the northern slope of the valley. In this area, there are Buryat burials from the 17th-19th centuries, more than 50 of which are located at the Khuzhir-Nuge 4 burial ground (Goryunova, Svinin, 1996. P. 76-78). To the northwest of this archaeological site, there is Khuzhur 4, whose graves were investigated in 2014. These were child burials from the 19th century. Their location aside from the adult burials indicates a special attitude of the Khuzhir-Nugoi inhabitants to
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In terms of their design features, child burials did not differ from those of adults. The dead were placed on their backs, with their heads towards the northeast. Among them were both Kurkut and Khagun burials, near which there were stone structures, under which no human remains were found. All of them were located along the ridge of rocky outcrops from the southwest to the northeast. Only in one burial of a female child aged 7-8 years, accompanying items (jewelry) were found. The absence of items in child burials indicates that they were not considered to be full-fledged members of society who owned property. Their role in the world of the living was reflected in their position in the world of the dead, where they were not full-fledged members, or did not manage to get there.
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Information about the authors Artur V. Kharinskii,
Dr. Sci (History), professor, director of the Laboratory of Archaeology, Palaeoecology and Subsistence of People of the Northern Asia,
Irkutsk National Research Technical University, 83, Lermontov street, Irkutsk 664074, Russia, Irkutsk State University, 1, Karl Marks street, Irkutsk 664003, Russia, ^ e-mail: kharinsky@mail.ru
Maria G. Konushkina,
Specialist in educational and methodological work of the Department of Drawing, Painting, Fundamentals of Design and Historical and Architectural Heritage, Irkutsk National Research Technical University, 83, Lermontov street, Irkutsk 664074, Russia, ^ e-mail: konyushkina.maria@mail.ru Samdantsoodol Orgilbayar, Lecturer, Department of the Archaeology, Ulaanbaatar State University,
5-thkhoroo, Bayanzurkh district, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia, ^ e-mail: orgiob@gmail.com
Contribution of the authors
A.V. Kharinskii and M.G. Konushkina conducted excavations at the archaeological site of Khuzhur 4. A.V. Kharinskii and S. Orgilbayar analyzed the obtained materials and wrote the text of the paper.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
The authors have read and approved the final manuscript.
Article info
Received January 10, 2021. Received February 20, 2021. Accepted March 9, 2021.
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Сведения об авторах Харинский Артур Викторович,
доктор исторических наук, профессор, руководитель Лаборатории археологии, палеоэкологии и систем жизнедеятельности народов Северной Азии ИРНИТУ, Иркутский национальный исследовательский технический университет, 664074, г. Иркутск, ул. Лермонтова, 83, Россия, Иркутский государственный университет, 664003 г. Иркутск, ул. Карла Маркса, 1, Россия,
e-mail: kharinsky@mail.ru Конюшкина Мария Геннадьевна, специалист по УМР кафедры рисунка, живописи, основ проектирования и историко-архитектурного наследия, Иркутский национальный исследовательский технический университет, 664074, г. Иркутск, ул. Лермонтова, 83, Россия,
e-mail: konyushkina.maria@mail.ru Оргилбаяр Самданцоодол, преподаватель кафедры археологии, Улан-Баторский государственный университет, Монголия, Улан-Батор, Баянзурх район, 5-й хороо, e-mail: orgiob@gmail.com
Заявленный вклад авторов
А.В. Харинский и М.Г. Конюшкина провели раскопки на археологическом объекте Хужур 4. А.В. Харинский и С. Оргилбаяр проанализировали полученный материал и написали текст статьи.
Конфликт интересов
Авторы заявляют об отсутствии конфликта интересов.
Все авторы прочитали и одобрили окончательный вариант рукописи.
Информация о статье
Поступила в редакцию 10 января 2021 г.
Поступила после рецензирования и доработки 20 февраля 2021 г.
Принята к публикации 9 марта 2021 г.
