CC BY
8"CHEGACHILIK" - THE TRADITIONAL UZBEK TECHNIQUE OF CHINA MENDING: PRACTICES OF PRESERVING THE CRAFT
Akmal Ulmasov akmalj onu@gmail .com Zilola Tulkinova bintuanis 1 @gmail .com National Institute of Art & Design named after K.Bekhzod
Abstract: This article identifies and compares the features of the traditional craft of repairing porcelain tableware, naming as "chegachilik" in Uzbekistan, which is also widespread in Asian and European countries. Moreover it identifies current practices and efforts of preserving the ancient craft. The bases of scientific research are the results of researches made by archaeologists and ethnographers, materials of interviews and conversations with craftsmen, and testimonies of contemporaries about activities of craftsmen. The author used a cross-cultural approach and methods of ethnography. The history of the development of "chegachilik" craft in Uzbekistan and new data about the last supporter of this tradition - Uzbek craftman- chegachi are given in this article.
Keywords: chegachi, china mender, ju, kintsugi, porcelain, craft, applied art, restoration, tradition, Uzbekistan, China, Japan
The development of modern civilization is characterized by the increasing dynamics of globalization processes, often challenging traditional culture, in the depths of which unique value models inherent in each nation have been developed over the centuries, achievements and positive experiences have been embodied and transmitted from generation to generation.
The translation of culture covers not only material artifacts, but also intangible heritage, which by its nature is the most fragile and influenced subject by numerous changes set of cultural values, is not a small importance in this process. It includes knowledge and skills, including the relation to traditional technologies embodied in national crafts, which is experiencing a tremendous negative impact caused by various modernization trends. The preservation of intangible cultural heritage, traditions, customs, and various forms of self-expression is currently an urgent task for most States that have embarked on the path of intensive socio-economic development.
Quite a striking example in this situation is the culture of Uzbekistan, characterized by a variety of types of native decorative and applied arts, each of which has its own path of evolutionary development. Meanwhile, some crafts are
completely forgotten or are on the verge of extinction. The one type of such crafts is chegachilik (from the Uzbek language 'chegachi' - a repairer and affix-'lik'-occupation, profession). It is also called 'qadoqchilik' (qadoq - a bracket, qadoqchi -a craftsman, who repairs porcelain dishes using metal staples. The proposed scientific review is generally devoted to the history of this type of craft and its role in the culture and social life of Uzbekistan and other ethnic groups [1, p. 60-71].
Attention to the considered topic is caused by the discovery of a stone cauldron restored by the author. This cauldron of the XI-XII centuries was found during archaeological excavations carried out at the ancient settlement of the Old Termez in 2010. The vessel was found in the form of several dozen large and small pieces, during the restoration all the fragments were glued together, the missing parts were filled with plaster. After the works carried out, it turned out that the cauldron is equipped with paired ears and has a conical shape; its outer surface is decorated with vertical grooves [2, p. 51].
The interesting fact is that large fragments of the boiler were attached to each other with rivets. It means that, small parallel holes were made along the edges of these fragments, through which were passed metal staples connecting them. Judging by the cultural layer in which the cauldron was found, the repair works was carried out shortly after it was broken. It can be assumed that such stone cauldrons were often repaired for reuse due to the complexity of their manufacture or the impossibility of acquiring a new vessel (Fig. 1).
Fig. 1. Stone cauldron before and after restoration (Photo & Drawing by the author) It can be assumed that the repairing of kitchen vessels and other household items has existed since ancient times. Later, a special profession of repairing broken ceramic and porcelain dishes was formed; such craftsmen were called "chegachi". Currently, there is no information about when and where they first appeared, but until recently their workshops were located in the markets. It was said, sometimes the "chegachi" walked through the mahallas-quarters and restored household items needed repair accumulated in private houses. In general, they repaired broken porcelain dishes, as spouts, handles and lids, with metal and staples: spouts, handles, lids. Although the tools and raw materials they used and the method of repair was
simple, the products lasted a long time due to quality repairs. Unfortunately, this traditional craft in Uzbekistan has almost not survived to this day (Fig. 2).
Fig. 2. In old Samarkand: mending porcelain dishes at the bazaar: the mender and the customer. 1931 (From the funds of the Museum of Anthropology and Ethnography named after Peter the Great (Kunstkamera) of the Russian Academy of Sciences) Although the tools and raw materials they used, as well as the repair method, were simple, the products served for a long time thanks to high-quality work. Unfortunately, this traditional craft has almost not survived to the present day.
In popular science literature, albums and other sources, you can find information about such craftsmen. For instance, in the book 'Ethnography, ethnogenesis and ethnic history of the peoples of Central Asia", in the section about the Dungans living in China, it is noted that among them the craft of repairing dishes - "chegachilik" is widespread [3, p. 232].
Some materials about this craft are published on the website "Letters about Tashkent". Particularly, Y. Gevorkyan recalls that the craftsman - Usta Shirin came several times to the area where he lived in childhood [4]. T. Kuziev notes that in von Kaufman's album "Turkestan" you can find photos of craftsmen who repair dishes. Indeed, in the ethnographic chapter of the Kaufman's "Turkestan album" [5], among many photographs relating to the beginning of the 1870s and reflecting the material culture and customs of the inhabitants of Central Asia, there is an image of a craftsman - patcher of broken dishes [6, p. 50]. Despite the fact that this photo taken in the city of Ura-Tube (modern Istaravshan), located on the territory of Tajikistan, as it mentioned on the sheet title, it allows to get an overall impression of the daily routine of these craftsmen.
It means that, the traditional craft - "Chegachilik" of Uzbekistan has not been researched as scientific object of intangible heritage. Therefore, it is needed a scientific review at the initial stage of the study. This review would be aimed at identifying and comparing the specific characteristics of traditional craft, as mending of porcelain widespread in Asia and Europe. It is needed to determine current practices related to preservation and promotion of this crafts (Fig. 3 a).
Fig. 3 a. Chegachi (dish menders) at the wall of the wholesale warehouse of the E. Tsindel Partnership. Tashkent, 1925 (From the funds of the Museum of Anthropology and Ethnography named after Peter the Great (Kunstkamera) of the
Russian Academy of Sciences) The sources of this review are the results of researches made by archaeologists, ethnographers and culturologists, materials of interviews and conversations with specialists published in various publications, as well as stories of contemporaries about the activities of masters who continue to work today. The methodology of the study was compiled by a tool used in cross-cultural studies and involving the use of a comparative approach, which is intended to explain the specifics of an object based on its comparison with other objects. Any craft at the same time part of the system of means of existence (since it implies the manufacture of items necessary for life support to one degree or another) and the socio-cultural system (since the bearers of craft skills are part of society and have their professional roles and values). Therefore, the objects of analysis should be both specific knowledge and skills, and those who use them that are the craftsmen.
Using methods of ethnographic science was important for this work, especially functional method, taking into account the role of cultural elements in the life of society, as well as systemic method, allowing identifying the connections of cultural phenomena with other objects and phenomenon's. Studying processes of the
evolution of the traditional craft, as mending dishes, will contribute to more successful studies about the impact of modernization on the traditional handicraft production in Central Asian countries and other regions. Moreover it will contribute to the formation of theoretical and methodological foundations for studying this type of craft, as an endangered intangible cultural heritage of a number of ethnic groups.
Craftsmen - "chegachi", whose service was in great demand in the XIX - first half of the XX centuries, had their quarters in many Central Asian cities at that time. Skilled craftsmen were respected and revered, they were met with honor at weddings and celebrations - this profession was more in demand than jewelry. At that time it was believed that it was possible to live without jewelry, a new hat or shirt, and even a torn raincoat could be patched. However, if there were broken dishes in the house, it was impossible to repair it without a craftsman - "chegachi".
Now the factory production of porcelain dishes has led to its abundance, whereas before it was a rather rare and expensive type of household utensils. Instead of porcelain dishes were used ceramic plates, jugs, co-drivers and bowls, wooden spoons and chopsticks. Usually, chegachi did not repair the pottery because of its fragility and the impossibility of applying methods of fastening the fragments with staples to it. The porcelain vessel never leaked if it was restored by the experienced and skillful hands of a craftsman (Fig. 3 b).
Fig. 3 b. Chegachi craftsmen on Tashkent Street in Samarkand, 1917 (Photo: Maynard Owen Williams; Central Asian Photo Archive, National Geographical
Journal Fund, October 1918) The craftman-chegachi had only one disciple, and when he reached a sufficient level, three highly qualified craftsmen from three different residential areas were invited to check the extent of his mastery of this skill. The student who passed the "exam" received a "blessing", which confirmed the acquisition of a new profession.
After that, he had to repair porcelain dishes and items belonging to his poor fellow villagers for free for a month. It was a kind of charity. T.Kuziev notes that such serious craft training was practiced only in Turkestan, "because porcelain was always imported here, Russian (Gardner, Kuznetsov, etc.) and Chinese porcelain converged here in the "battle" for the market" [7].
Studies have shown that since ancient times, chegachi-craftsmen have been widely distributed in other regions besides Turkestan. During the preparation of this article, new information was obtained about them1. Particularly, it was found that in the city of Kokand, one of the oldest cities in the Ferghana Valley, the traditions of this craft are now continued by the dynastic craftsman Habibullo Nematullayev, who is presented as "qadoqchi" (synonym of "Chegachi" - China mender). He is one of the few chegachi living not only in the valley itself, but throughout Uzbekistan. His father, Umatullah Nematullayev, was from the Arab village of Mindon in the Vadil district of the Fergana Valley and was engaged in agriculture. The craftsman said that his father learned this craft from Bakhtiyor-aka, the son of his uncle named Tillavoy-ata. During the World War, they went from village to village and repaired broken dishes of residents. The craftsman- qadokchi says that he taught this craft to his two sons, but they do not practice it because of insufficient demand. According to him, this kind of craft is now disappearing, and he regrets that there are no people who continue the traditions of the craft (Fig. 4).
Fig. 4. Khabibullo Nematullaev, hereditary chegachi master from Kokand, Fergana Valley (Source: screenshot from N.Usmanov's video)
1 The author expresses his gratitude to the artist-restorer N. Usmanov from Kokand for the information provided. I fcOl^^^^HI 333 http://oac.dsmi-qf.uz
Although this type of handicraft is almost disappearing in Uzbekistan, in some foreign countries it has actually been elevated to the rank of art. For instance, in China, the enthusiast Tong Weicheng, a lover of porcelain, opened a workshop and collects broken porcelain dishes from the neighborhood to restore it in a unique old style - by repairing it with metal rivets. In Chinese, it is called "ju", the craft gallery has the same name [8].
This young craftsman is from the Chinese province of Anhui and belongs to a small group of professional porcelain menders preserved in China. The studio of Master Tong, located in the Fashion district, not only preserves millennial traditions, but also conducts master classes in the art of "ju". Tong, who had been a photographer for many years, quit his previous job and started repairing dishes. Thanks to him, not only a unique and disappearing kind of craft has been preserved, but also the number of people interested in this art has increased. He says that his interest in repairing dishes arose when he visited a museum in Shanghai, where he saw exquisite porcelain vessels in cracks. From that moment he began to practice this rare craft and after several months of practical work fell in love with his new profession (Fig. 5).
Fig. 5. Tong Weicheng is carefully examining the porcelain he is mending
(Photo by Ti Gong)
In China, the ancient method of restoring dishes is more complex than in Central Asia. Repairing of porcelain items with rivets consists of several stages. First, the fragments of porcelain are collected for determining the places of their attachment to each other, and small holes are made along the crack for hammering nails. This piercing process is called "jin gang zuan" in Chinese. There is even a saying in
China: "If you don't have jin gang zuan, then don't do porcelain". From the proverb, it can be understood that this craft has existed in China since ancient times, which is reflected even in folklore traditions (Fig. 6).
According to Tong, the most difficult part of brace restoration is finding the best place to pierce the rivet in the porcelain bowl. At the same time, it is required to "make as few holes in the product as possible so that they do not damage the original patterns on the vessel" The young craftsman visited almost all museums in China, collecting information about porcelain products restored in this technique in order to study the history of the ancient craft more deeply.
According to Tong's research, there are written sources about the "ju" craft that mention only this term, but there is no information about its origin and formation. However, he managed to find out that this art in China has a 5000-year history, as evidenced by pottery vessels found in central China belonging to the Yang Shao culture, which had small holes near cracks [8].
Fig. 6. Porcelain mender from China, possibly by Pukua, Guangzhou, China, ca.
1790. Watercolor. 14 1/4'' x 18 1/8'' (from the collections of the Victoria and Albert
Museum, UK)
A 2000-year-old jade artifact found in the tomb of King Nanyue in Guangdong Province was restored in a similar way, but for its repairing, instead of metal rivets, the ancient craftsman used a thin rope.
It is believed that the art of mending porcelain originated during the Tang Dynasty (618-907 A.D.) and has remained virtually unchanged to this day, with the only difference being that an electric drill is now used to make holes, instead of "Jin gang zhun" method. Since porcelain was very expensive in ancient times, Chinese craftsmen worked mainly at the palaces of kings and wealthy families. Mending dishes was an expensive process too. During the Qing Dynasty (1644-1912), craftsmen were paid according to the number of staples used, and this tradition continued until the 1980s. But in the future, almost everywhere this craft gradually
disappeared due to the increase in the production of porcelain dishes, which became a common household item. According to Tong, the last porcelain restorer in Shanghai was an old man who in the 1990s had a small workshop (booth) in the city temple, now it has already been destroyed (Fig. 7).
Fig. 7. Yuan Dynasty (1271-1368) porcelain jar restored by Tong Weicheng (photo
by Ti Gong)
Master Tong claims that in the past some China-menders-masters deliberately increased the number of staples scored in order to earn more money" [8]. This is revealed by the obviously excessive number of rivets on dishes dating back to the reign of the Qing Dynasty. However, during the Song Dynasty (960-1279), some restored items had only two rivets. Tong himself sets the price depending on the number of cracks, and not on the number of used rivets [8]. If he thinks that the restoration will cost more than the dish itself, he asks customers how much the product costs and whether it makes sense to repair it. "Sometimes we can find beauty in fragments. We don't need to fix everything," [8] says the craftsman. Today, there are more than 30 students studying in his studio, and Tong hopes to spread his skills to more people. He also plans to write a book about the history of porcelain restoration to fill the gap in scientific knowledge. About his strict adherence to the ancient tradition, the craftsman says: "I want to leave "ju" as it is. The origin is beautiful [8] (Fig.8).
Fig. 8. Gallery of porcelain in the workshop of Tong Weicheng
(Photo by Ti Gong)
The Japanese have a tradition not to throw away the broken dishes that were used in everyday life, but to keep it as a souvenir and a relic intended for ancestor worship ceremonies. This type of craft, as well as in China, has existed in Japan since ancient times. In addition, the art of "kintsugi" is widespread in this country - the restoration of porcelain products with precious materials such as gold and silver. Kintsugi (from Japanese "kin" - gold and "tsugi" - joinery) is a method of restoration of broken parts of ceramics by mixing gold, silver or platinum powder with varnish for gluing. This method is similar to the "maki-e" technique2. The philosophical aspect of this art is that the restoration of a broken place should be considered as part of the history of the object not as its repairing (Fig. 9-10).
Fig. 9. Pierced bowl from Nanjing, Fig. 10. Wine ewer with incised scroll design, restored with rivets. 1750 (Photo by Korea, Goryeo period, restored with gold Jared Zimmerman) lacquer by a Japanese collector in the early
20th century (from the collections of the Cleveland Museum of Art, photo by Michael Dreiling)
Restoring dishes with varnish is an ancient Japanese tradition. Perhaps at some point kintsugi art merged with "maki-e", shifting other methods of ceramic restoration. Although this process is associated with Japanese craftsmen, this technique has also been used by potters in countries such as China, Vietnam and Korea.
The origin of kintsugi is closely related to the pottery used for "chanoyu" (Japanese tea ceremony). There is a theory according to which the art of kintsugi originated at the end of the XV century in Japan, when the Japanese shogun Ashikaga Yoshimasa (1449-1473) sent a damaged teapot to China for mending. When the ceramics were returned, it turned out that the product had been repaired with the help of ugly metal rivets, and Japanese craftsmen tried to find a more aesthetic way to restore such dishes - this is how the kintsugi method appeared. Collectors were so
2 Maki-e - one of the directions of Japanese fine art, a lacquer miniature, decorated by spraying gold or silver powder on wet lacquer.
impressed with the new art that some of them deliberately broke expensive ceramics and tried to restore it with the help of kintsugi gold. In addition, ceramics that were deformed during the production process were not thrown away, but deliberately broken and restored [10].
There is no doubt that such craft has spread not only in Asia, but also in Europe. The proof of this is the photo of Alexander Beatty, which depicts a master chegachi. It was included in the sixth volume of the book series "Peoples of All Nations" edited by J.A.Hammerton. A letter from a collector of ceramics and porcelain from Scotland, who sent a photo, says that "a wandering master chegachi is located near pine trees in the area of Rothiemurchus in Scotland. He travels around the country, doing his craft and serving those thrifty villagers who prefer to repair their broken jugs than spend money on buying new ones. His house and belongings are placed on a horse-drawn cart that he carries with him, and when evening comes, shelter and a fire are ready. And, sitting by the fire, he finishes some work for a local resident" [9]. In the photo, the master manually drills the restored object, and the restored jug lies under his feet (Fig. 11).
Fig. 11. Wandering china-mender camped by the pines of Rothiemurchus. 1918 (Photo by Alexander Beattie; from Hammerton, J (ed.) (1924) Peoples of All Nations: Their Life Today and The Story of Their Past (Book 6). London: The
Fleetway House. P. 4518) This unique type of craft is also available in one of the European countries -England. Craftsmen in English are called china menders, that is, "Chinese dish menders". They started their activity in the 50s of the last century, and today they are the first professional restorers of ceramics in the industry. One of the most famous workshops in the country was founded by Regina Mayer and Angela Drayson in St. John's Wood. Now it has turned into a large company with an office in London. The craftsmen specialize in the restoration of all types of (precious or everyday)
porcelain, ceramics and terracotta figurines. The company provides its services to well-known shops, insurance and logistics companies, as well as lovers of antiques. English craftsmen also provide services to the public by restoring valuables or special gifts bought by friends or relatives (Fig. 12).
Fig. 12. Chinese company China Repairers in London and their restoration work (source: website www.chinarepairers.co.uk) Today, it is possible to find supporters of this craft in other countries of the world. For instance, one of them is Lana Tsivlin, originally from Belarus, who now lives in Australia. She graduated from the Art and Industrial College by Abramtsevo in Moscow with a degree in Ceramics and Chinese Painting. Having arrived in Australia, Lana initially worked at home, and by the end of the 1980s she opened her Chinese restoration business in Elsternvik. Her first client was William Johnson, a local collector and antiques dealer who restored a lot of porcelain himself. His collection was donated to the National Trust Museum. Lana has 20 years of experience and is still actively working in this profession [11].
It is important to note that chegachilik is a unique kind of craft and art that appeared in ancient times and was in great demand until recently. Often people have a lot of inherited and valuable household porcelain items that were broken and then restored. In some cultures of the East, broken dishes are an evil omen [6, p. 95], in addition, over the past half century, it is believed that keeping broken dishes in the house lead into that the family will not be strong. In the ancestral home of the author of the article were found several exquisite dishes repaired by the master-chegachi. Keeping things restored with the help of rivets, they are proud of the strength of family ties and civilized relations (Fig. 13.).
The information analyzed in this review allows us to draw a number of conclusions. Firstly, the repair of broken dishes is a kind of handicraft that has existed since ancient times and has traditionally been preserved mainly in the countries of the East for several centuries. Secondly, despite the fact that in recent decades there has been a trend towards the disappearance of this type of applied art, in countries such as China, Japan, England and Australia, this tradition has been
preserved and brought almost to the level of art. Thirdly, a comparison of the development of the craft in these countries showed that the general technological principles of restoring dishes are fundamentally significantly different (in Japan, instead of staples, craftsmen usually used varnish mixed with precious metal powder, in Western countries they prefer to hide the whole junction of the vessel parts), and tools are being modernized (over time as the drill replaced the archaic devices). Fourth, it must be stated that modern craftsmen in China, Great Britain and Australia have achieved success mainly due to their enthusiasm, through self-education and self-study. In Japan, the tradition of kintsugi art was practically not interrupted by the passage of time. Unfortunately, in Uzbekistan, the art of chegachilik has almost become a thing of the past. Meanwhile, we can hope that this craft will be revived here and there will be masters who will be able to use their enthusiasm and talent to receive knowledge about this unique kind of creativity from still living craftsmen. It is necessary to support and encourage those who continue the tradition, because it is the duty of each of us - to preserve the cultural heritage and values of our ancestors in order to pass them on to future generations.
Fig. 13. Chegachi master Lana Tsivlin from Australia and her work (source: website www.chinarestoration.com.au)
References
1. Ulmasov, A.F. (2022) "Chegachilik" - the Traditional Uzbek Technique of Mending Dishes and Its Foreign Analogues: Practices of Preserving the Craft. Nasledie vekov - Heritage of Centuries. 4. pp. 60-71. (In Russian). DOI: 10.36343/SB.2022.32.4.005
2. Ulmasov A. The 2011 Archaeological Excavations in the Old Termez Citadel // The Tenth Regular Report. ACCU Nara, 2012. - P. 51-54.
3. Donierov, A.Kh., Buriev, O. & Ashirov, A.A. (2011) Ethnography, Ethnogenesis and Ethnic History of the Peoples of Central Asia. A Study Guide. Tashkent: Yangi nashr. (In Uzbek).
4. Gevorkyan, Yu.E. (2007) Usto Shirin. Pis'ma o Tashkente [Letters About Tashkent]. [Online] Available from: https://mytashkent.uz/2007/03/12/usto-shirin (Accessed: 23.09.2022).
5. Kun, A.L. (1872) Turkestanskiy al'bom: po rasporyazheniyu turkestanskogo general-gubernatora general-ad"yutanta K.P. fon Kaufmana 1-go [Turkestan Album: By Order of K. P. von Kaufmann I, Turkestan Governor General, Adjutant General]. Vol. 4. Saint Petersburg: [s.n.].
6. Lin', Yu. & Kargy, T.A. (2017) [Comparative Linguistic and Cultural Analysis of Russian and Chinese Signs and Superstitions With a New Year Component]. V mire russkogo yazyka i russkoy kul'tury [In the World of the Russian Language and Russian Culture]. Abstracts of the International Conference. Moscow: Gos. in-t rus. yaz. im. A.S. Pushkina. pp. 90-97. (In Russian).
7. Kuziev, T.K. (2016) Pochinshchik posudy - "Chegachi" [China Mender -"Chegachi"]. Pis'ma o Tashkente [Letters About Tashkent]. [Online] Available from: https://mytashkent.uz/2016/08/02/pochinshhik-posudy-chegachi (Accessed: 23.09.2022).
8. Feiran, L. (2019) A Craftsman Deft at Picking up the Pieces. Shanghai Daily. [Online] Available from: https://www.shine.cn/feature/art-culture/1907319354 (Accessed: 23.09.2022).
9. Baseman, A. (2022) Scottish China-Mender, c.1918. Past Imperfect. The Art of Inventive Repair. [Online] Available from: http://blog.andrewbaseman.com/?p=1661 (Accessed: 23.09.2022).
10. Gopnik, B. (2009) 'Golden Seams: The Japanese Art of Mending Ceramics' at Freer. The Washington Post. March 3. [Online] Available from: https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-
dyn/content/article/2009/03/02/AR2009030202723.html (Accessed: 23.09.2022).
11. Tsilvin, L. (2022) My Bio. Lana's Chinese Restoration. [Online] Available from: http://www.chinarestoration.com.au/about (Accessed: 23.09.2022).
