CC BY
6DOI: https://doi.org/10.46991/AFA/2023.19.2.084 BODY, MISOGYNY AND RELIGION IN SWEAR WORDS
Anna Knyazyan*
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6880-9549 Yerevan State University Linda Artoni https://orcid.org/0009-0009-6241-8633
University of Bologna
The main focus of this article is on the use of the most common English, Italian and Russian swear words. The language of swearing has been taboo for many years considering that swear words have always been regarded as offensive, inappropriate and unacceptable in any social context. Profanity reflects not only our emotions but also our values, taboos, and prejudices. It is evident that different cultures have distinct rules and perceptions surrounding cursing - the most powerful words that can express both positive and negative emotions; therefore they are actively used by people of all ages, genders, social statuses and languages. Taking into consideration that swear words and obscenity are common in all languages, there are many similarities and differences between them and their rendition of obscenity. Even though the topic of swearing has been neglected for many years, it is a quite complex one and many discussions and different interpretations can be made. That is to say, the formation of swear words, their functions, degrees of offensiveness, different typologies and classifications are investigated through a comparative method, to conclude what common taboos are shared by these three cultures.
Keywords: swear words, cursing, derogatory language, misogyny, masculinity, femininity.
Introduction
The act of cursing or swearing, is defined as "to use profane or obscene language" ("Swear", Merriam-Webster Dictionary, 2019), or even as "undereducated, obscene, rude and profane language in society" (Wang, 2013)
* annaknyazyan@ysu.am linda.artoni@studio .unibo. it
lie?) ® © I This work is licensed under a Creative Commons I^BHiH Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
Received: 16.10.2023 Revised: 02.11.2023 Accepted: 14.11.2023
© The Author(s) 2023
the use of swear words are natural human behaviors, practiced in almost all languages in the world. They are used to express all kinds of strong emotions from anger and disappointment to excitement. Swear words are very versatile and they prove to be vitally important in understanding the spoken language and improving one's proficiency in the language of choice.
Almost every language develops and uses its own repertoire of curse words. This repertoire consists of various expressions which, in one way or another, refer to certain existing taboos, consisting of a prohibition imposed by social custom or something that is not acceptable to say, mention, or do □
Different cultures have different rules about who is allowed and when it is acceptable to swear: while in places like the United Arab Emirates, Russia and Australia, there are laws in place to punish those who curse in public (Lazzarus, 2020). In many other states it is just not socially accepted: in Armenia, for example, until 2021 you could be sanctioned for up to 3 million AMD (5100 EUR) for the crime of "grave insult" (CSO meter report for Armenia, 2022). In numerous cultures, women are taught to be polite and must not use harsh language, which leads to Lakoff s conclusions stated in Language and woman's place (1973): "females are the experts at euphemisms". This does not mean women do not swear at all: it just means they are much more pressured into not doing so in public.
Oftentimes, most of cursing lexicon revolves around bodily parts and functions: but what makes referencing the human body shocking or controversial? The dualistic concept that juxtapposes the mind and the body dates back to Plato (Duke, et al., 1995), in whose philosophy the material world is regarded as inferior. Western Christianity drew on these concepts and during the high Middle Ages the body came to be considered sin's instrument—The body costrains the soul, the spiritus, to the material world, on one hand, but is also a sanctuary for the Holy Spirit, which must be preserved and kept pure, on the other).
Swearing or cursing at someone is the degrading and/or submissive role traditionally associated with women and the female body, especially when involved in sexual intercourse. While cursing it is frequent to break the religious taboo, to violate the third commandment: "You shall not take the name of the Lord your God in vain, for the Lord will not hold him guiltless who takes his name in vain" (Deuteronomy 5:11). Different cultures approach this specific subject in more or less explicit ways.
Cursing and invoking deities
The connection between the act of cursing and religion is immediate and intuitive, given that the term curse means "a prayer or invocation for harm or injury to come upon one" ("Curse", Merriam-Webster Dictionary, 2019), and to curse would literally be "to call upon divine or supernatural power to send injury upon" (Ibidem). There are quite a lot of idioms in which the English language involves references to hell: Portia in the Merchant of Venice prays: "Let Fortune go to hell for it" (Shakespeare, The Merchant of Venice, Act 3, Scene 2, verse 21). According to the Online Etymology Dictionary ("Hell", n.d. Online Etymology Dictionary), it has been common to define a chaotic situation as hell breaking loose since the 17th century. If you want to tell someone to go to hell in Russian, you should actually address the devil, chiort (чёрт) (Kovalev, 2016), as in poslat' k chiortu (послать к чёрту). Italian employs both vai all'inferno and vai al diavolo. The act of damning has acquired less and less religious meanings while actually meaning "to condemn to a punishment or fate" ("Damn", Merriam-Webster Dictionary, 2019) it is "often used to express annoyance, disgust, or surprise" (Ibidem): it can be employed as a verb, as in I'll be damned, damn it, or damn you/him/her/them (of which the literal sense would be "may them be damned", invoking, as explained before, at least metaphorically, a higher power); as an adjective: that is a damn nuisance; or as an emphatic you knew damn well what could happen; or lastly, as an exclamation: damn. In Italian, the same verb dannare ("Dannare", n.d. in Vocabolario, Treccani) is usually employed as an adjective in the past participle: dannato/a/i/e.
However, the Italian speaking world has got something almost any other culture lacks: the bestemmia or bestemmie when plural. The act of bestemmiare is translated as "to blaspheme" and defined as "to blaspheme God and the saints" ("Bestemmiare", n.d. in Vocabolario, Treccani). It is not anything new, given that the Bible condemns it in multiple instances; Leviticus 24:16 recites: "And whoever blasphems the name of the Lord shall surely be put to death", whereas Mark 3:28-29 declares "[...] he who blasphemes against the Holy Spirit never has forgiveness". Nonetheless, the especially intriguing development is that in many regions and social groups in Italy the act of bestemmiare and its direct religious implications have parted completely. It will not be uncommon to hear the same old women and men who go to church every Sunday invoke the name of God (Dio), Christ (Gesu Cristo), the Holy
Mary (Madonna) and other saints juxtaposed with the words porco or porca (pig, masculine and feminine), cane or cagna (dog, masculine and feminine), boia (hangman), bestia (beast), ladro or ladra (thief), and many more, particularly in the Veneto region and in Tuscany. This happens regardless of the article 724 of the Penal Code, which punishes "Anyone who publicly blasphemes, with invectives or outrageous words, against the Deity" (Codice penale commentato. Art. 724) as an administrative offence with a fine between 51 and 309 euros.
Cursing the body
If the body is the realm of the impulses which must be repressed, it may not come as a surprise that the body parts more subjected to censorship and shame are the genitals, both male and female. Since the early stages of languages these bodily parts have been referenced through a variety of terms, all considered vulgar and inappropriate (oftentimes, even the correct scientifical ones): the English speaking world refers to the penis as dick, which can also be used to indicate "a mean, stupid or annoying man" ("Dick", Merriam-Webster Dictionary, 2019); cock, but also weenie, which has demeaning connotations and can be synonym to "nerd" (Ibidem). The Italian language covers this semantic space with the word minchia (minchia in Vocabolario, Treccani), originally from the Sicilian dialect, and most importantly cazzo ("Cazzo",n.d. in Vocabolario, Treccani), which are used as exclamations or for emphasis, and can be employed, like fuck in English, to signify something insignificant or nonexistent, as in non me ne frega un cazzo/una minchia, translatable as "I don't give a fuck". To refer to people, both of them can change into minchione, minchiona when feminine and cazzone, cazzona when feminine, which Oxford Dictionary translates as prick and describes as a "nasty or conteptible person" ("Prick", Oxford English Dictionary, 2023) - the same meaning that the word coglione or cogliona (the masculine literal meaning is "testicle" but vulgar) has. Russian people use khuy (xyu) (Kovalev, 2016) with the same meaning, with na khuy (Ha xyu as an exclamation, while khuyev (xyeB) is the adjective.
The landscape of terms for female genitals is also varied: the vulva in Italian can be referred to as fregna ("Fregna" in Vocabolario, Treccani), especially around Lazio, gnocca ("Gnocca", n.d.in Vocabolario, Treccani) and mainly figa or fica ("Fica", n.d. in Vocabolario, Treccani). All of the three words can double as nouns and adjectves to indicate an attractive woman or
girl. They also have masculine versions: fregno, gnocco, figo, which refer to attractive men or boys. Fighetta, on the other hand, formed with the diminutive suffix -etto/a, has acquired the same derogatory meaning as pussy in English, a word with a complex history (Ellie, 2023): the word pus, probably related to the word pusillanimous, was originally a call name for cat and became a "term of endearment" for women since the 16th century; only in the 19th century it gained the meaning of female genitalia. In the way it is employed, the word equates femininity with weakness and it is used to refer to someone as "a timid, passive person, especially a man", but it can also mean "sexual intercourse with a woman" and, offensively, "women collectively, regarded as sex objects" (" Pussy", n.d. Dictionary.com,). Cunt, from the Proto-Germanic *kunton ("Cunt", Online Etymology Dictionary 2017), which is of uncertain origin, but similar to the latin cunnus - "female pudenda" and also vulgarly "a woman", means "vulva or vagina" but can also be used disparagingly as "a contemptuous term to refer to a woman" ("Cunt", n.d. Dictionary.com). The Russian word kiska (киска), (Kovalev, 2016) doubles as cat and female genitalia, while pizda (пизда) (Kovalev, 2016) is closer to the English cunt, but the Russian word is also employed as an emphatic.
The last body part very amply referenced is the butt, arse ("Arse", n.d. Cambridge Dictionary) or ass ("Ass", Ibidem) in colloquial English, employed in many different ways as an emphatic. It has gained various other meanings: calling someone an ass would be similar to calling them "a pompous fool"; but getting ass is slang for sexual intercourse. Asshole is both "a stupid, annoying or detestable person" and "the least attractive or desirable part or area" (Ibidem). The Italian culo ("Culo", n.d. in Vocabolario, Treccani) as well as referencing the body part, works also as a vox media to indicate both good and bad luck, while being often employed in the untranslatable expression: vai a fare in culo!, which is roughly utilized like the English go fuck yourself! but whose actual meaning would be closer to encouraging the listener to go far away from you, to a remote place. Interestingly enough, Russians also say something similar: with the word zhopa (жопа), ass, the formulation id'i v zhopu (иди в жопу) invites the listener to do the same thing (Kovalev, 2016). Diametrically different is the meaning of the sentences chto za zhopa (что за жопа) and che culo: if the latter has, more often than not, a positive connotation indicating luck, the Russian one has a strongly negative one.
Related to these are the vulgar versions of the term pee and faeces or poop: the English piss ("Piss", Merriam-Webster Dictionary, 2019), and the Italian piscio ("Piscio", n.d. in Vocabolario, Treccani), the noun, and pisciare, the verb, are etymologically related and are subject to interesting uses, such as the Italian pisciarsi addosso dal ridere, "to pee oneself from laughing", something that the Russian people also say: opisatsa ot smekha (описаться от смеха) (Kovalev, 2016). The Italian merda, meaning faeces, is mostly used as an exclamation, like shit ("Shit", Merriam-Webster Dictionary, 2019) in English. They are very versatile, allowing colorful expressions such as shitfaced and shithead, faccia di merda and testa di merda in Italian. Russian comes in with govno (говно), with the adjective govnenniy (говнённый) (Kovalev, 2016), and d'ermo (дерьмо), with the adjective der'movij (дерьмовый) (Ibid.).
As much as the link comes spontaneous to us, to consider the association to bodily functions, and bodily parts especially, as derogatory or vulgar is not something inherently reasonable: it fits into the rationalist narrative of the body as inferior, as a mere mean to an end; moreover, it plugs into the culture of shame which sorrounds sexuality and pleasure, particularly when it comes to women.
Cursing women and femininity
To discuss the origins of misogyny, that is to say the ingrained hatred and prejudice towards women and femininity, we could begin by quoting the Genesis, and how the First Woman is created from a piece of the First Man's body (Genesis 2:21), as she is intended to please the lonely man (Genesis 2:18). She is also the first to err, as she eats the forbidden fruit (Genesis 3:6, 22-24). In the New Testament, husbands are encouraged to "treat [wives] with respect as the weaker partner" (Peter 3:7), and wives to "submit yourselves to your own husbands as you do to the Lord" (Ephesians 5:22). The female body is viewed by the biblical texts as dangerous, unclean, and a source of potential contamination (Leviticus 12:15). "These lines from the Pastoral Epistles have been used to reify gender norms that privilege men over women", argues Judith Baskin in the article Misogyny (Baskin, 2021). In Revelation, Babylon is symbolized as a "great whore", who will be brought "to ruin" and left "naked"; her "flesh" will be eaten and she will be burned "with fire" (Ibid.h). According to Baskin, "while Babylon represents the evils of this world for Christians, it is problematic that the language draws on sexualized violence against women"
(Ibidem). What the landscape of curse words often refers to is the archetype of the woman as described in these passages of the Bible: the, more often than not, subconscious and unaware belief that women are inherently evil and deceitful, and/or weak and submissive by nature and overall inferior to men, leads society to equate femininity with an insult, an injury when cast against someone. Here is how the language we employ strenghtens these beliefs.
A common theme would be that of "immoral sex", depicted through explicit remarks regarding sex workers, as the word whore in English, which comes from the Proto-Germanic root *horan-, feminine *hora-, probably from the Proto-Indoeuropean *ka-, which would mean "to desire", it might have shifted by influence of Middle English homonym hore "physical filth, slime," also "moral corruption, sin" ("Whore", Online Etymology Dictionary). Men can also be addressed as manwhores or mansluts, though these terms imply that women are "regular whores" and "regular sluts".
The Italian puttana ("Puttana", n.d. Dizionario Etimologico Online), related to the Spanish puta and the French putain, all come from the Ancient French putaine, originally derived from the vulgar word to say girl, puta or putta. The Italian language also involves various synonymous terms, such as troia, zoccola, battona, baldracca whose etymologies differ quite a lot, even though they all come to express the same thing: belittleling women by hinting at their "immoral" sexual behaviour. The Russian блядь comes from блядити, which means "to be deceived" or "to be disappointed" (Slovar' sinonimov, 2014), and it can be contemporarily translated as slut (Kovalev, 2016), while shlyukha (шлюха) comes from shlyatsa (шляться) ("Shlyukha", n.d. Etymologeek), which means "to saunter", "to dawdle" or "to hang around" ("Shlyuha", Ibid.). Words whose meaning is frequently far from that of prostitute eventually converge to the same idea: that is the case for the aforementioned blyad' (блядь) and shlyukha (шлюха), but also for the Italian mignotta, from Ancient French mignotte, literally cat, most commonly "favored woman" ("Mignotta", n.d. Wikizionario, Il dizionario libero).
The sexual references can also be implicit: bastard in English, or bastardo and bastarda in Italian, ublyudok (ублюдок) (Kovalev, 2016) in Russian, mean that a child was born of an unwed mother, who must have engaged in "immoral sex" (Jahnavi, 2020). The verb to fuck, and its various declinations as fucking or fucker, perpetrate ideas of men as "eternal doers" and women as eternal "done-upons", as argued by Ankita Anand in The Hindu (Anand, 2019). The same
goes for the similar verbs fottere ("Fottere", n.d. in Vocabolario, Treccani) in Italian, usually employed with the past participle fottuto, fottuta, fottuti, fottute, which is passive and implies the idea of "someone or something that has been fucked"; and trakhnut' (трахнуть) (Kovalev, 2016) andyebat' (ебать) (ibid.) in Russian.
Curiously, expressions often employed to curse men are literally directed at a woman: one example is the aforementioned bastard, but the same goes for the English motherfucker, and even son of a bitch, which shares the same meaning as figlio (but also figlia, figli, figlie) di puttana or di troia in Italian, сукин сын in Russian.
A common thread is the one that relates women and "immoral sex" with dirt or filth: since the 14th century, the word slut referred to having a "disreputable appearance" (Malcolm, 2015) or at least that is what Chaucer had in mind when he wrote "Why is thy lord so sluttish..." (Chaucer, 1400). The Oxford English Dictionary (2023) first definition for slut is "slovenly, untidy, dirty; vulgar, disreputable". It was only in the 20th century that it gained the sexual connotation.
Inseparable from these vocabulary is also the association with animals: bitch in English, cagna in Italian and suka (сука) in Russian. All share the same meaning. Italian goes even further with vacca (female cow) and porca (female pig), which doubles as both a noun and an adjective, and as such is often used in association with different injurious epithets. However, misogyny in the Italian language and culture is so deeply rooted that hinting at prostitution is as easy as declining a word or expression in the feminine form: as brilliantly explained by actress and comedian Paola Cortellesi in her monologue "Sono solo parole" (Cortellesi, 2018) translated as They are just words, oftentimes indicating femininity is the same as alluding to prostitution. Here are some examples: while a cortigiano is a "man of the court", a cortigiana is a slut; if a massaggiatore is a "massage therapist", a massaggiatrice is a slut; un uomo disponibile is "a helpful man", whereas una donna disponibile is a slut; on the one hand, uno squillo means "the ring of the phone", but on the other una squillo means a slut; un gatto morto is "a dead cat", but una gatta morta is a slut; lastly, uno zoccolo is a hoof, while una zoccola - a slut. Cortellesi's monologue continues with "Luckily, they are just words. Now, if words were the translation of thoughts, then it would be a nightmare, a nightmare since childhood. A boy could start thinking that girls are less important than him. As
a teenager, he could grow up mistakenly believing that other girls are somehow his belonging. And as an adult [...] it wouldn't seem wrong to offend, mock, touch or harass women. [... ] A woman could be hurt or killed by a man that loves her so much he believes he owns her. [...]. But thankfully, they're just words." (Cortellesi, 2018).
The way in which one speaks and the categories through which one perceives the world are not separate. Recognizing and deconstructing problematic speech habits is as essential as anything to prevent misogyny to keep on slythering in and poisoning our perception of the world, of society, of femininity.
Conclusion
This exploration of cursing and swearing across languages has revealed the intricate relationship between language, culture, and societal norms. Swear words, often considered taboos, serve as a fascinating window into the complexities of human expression and social dynamics. The connection of cursing with religion underscores the tension between religious beliefs and spontaneous human expression, especially in instances of discomfort, as well as the evolution of language over time. The derogatory nature of many of the terms referring to bodily parts highlights society's historical discomfort with the human body, especially in the context of sexuality. This discomfort often carries a deeply ingrained misogyny, perpetuating prejudices against women. Furthermore, this discussion has shed light on how language can be used as a tool of oppression and objectification, particularly concerning women. The derogatory terms and slurs directed at women, often rooted in notions of immorality and submission, reveal the enduring influence of historical gender biases. The normalized state of derogatory language against women contributes to a culture of discrimination and violence. In the quest for gender equality, it is imperative to recognize the power of language and the harm it can perpetuate. By addressing the underlying prejudices of problematic speech habits, we can work towards dismantling misogyny and fostering a different discernment of femininity.
Ultimately, this exploration of cursing and swearing underscores the profound impact of language on our understanding of society, gender, and human relationships. It serves as a reminder that words are not just words; they
are mirrors reflecting our collective values and beliefs, and they have the potential to shape the world we live in.
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PmUm^ pmntp" hmjhnjmUf, Uilmuwmgmgfe ltqm, lUmmjmgnLpjniU, ImUmgJi, fiqmlmUnLpjniU mpmtymUnLpjniU:
