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15употребление слов в традиционной или исторической форме (kinsman, hereof, ther eto); использование заимствований и варваризмов (латинских и французских): status quo, force majeure, persona non grata; широкое использование сокращенных наименований и символов: M.P (member of Parliament), Ltd (limited),$,etc. Тропы, слова оценки и другие эмоциональные слова в данном стиле являются стертыми, нейтральными метафорами (используются в дипломатической, военной и юридической подстилях и деловых письмах).
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ARGUMENTATION STRATEGIES THAT REFLECT THE RACIOSPHERE OF INDIVIDUAL DISCOURSE OF THE PRESIDENT (ON THE MATERIALS OF AMERICAN PRESIDENTS'
SPEECHES)
Pashali A.
Student of the Municipal Autonomous Educational Institution Gymnasium 91 Ufa Republic of Bashkortostan Russia
Abstract
The article is devoted to the problem of structure of the linguistic personality in presidential discourse -president. The author analyses one of the sphere of the individual conceptsphere of the linguistic personality in presidential discourse - raciosphere. Analyzed sphere is viewed through different strategies, tactics and techniques used by the subject of individual/presidential discourse in the speeches.
Keywords: presidential/individual discourse, president, individual/personal conceptsphere, concept, raciosphere, strategies, tactics, techniques.
The goal of political and therefore presidential discourse is to convince the audience in its ideology. As the subject of presidential discourse is a concrete president so one can talk about the individual or personal discourse of the political leader. In this article we are going to try to analyse the inauguration speeches and State of the Union Address of Barack Obama and Donald Trump.
The object of research in this article is the raciosphere of the personal/individual conceptsphere of the president in the American presidential discourse which is presented in the form of strategies, tactics and argumentation techniques. Personal conceptsphere is an ordered collection of concepts of people and informative thinking basis. The element of the conceptsphere is a concept - a discrete mental part which is a main unit of a personal thinking code [4, 37]. So, one can say that a personal conceptsphere is a collection of concepts which is formed in the result of the thinking activity of a person and a society.
Persuasion of the audience occurs through the use of certain strategies, tactics, and argumentation techniques. According to the opinion of A. A. Ivin: «Argumentation is connected with the creating of arguments in order to change the position or belief of the other party (the audience)» [2, 61]. In the field of our research we are most interested in the methods of persuading the audience with the help of speech influence studied by
the theory of argumentation. According to N.L.Grei-dina, these «features of argumentation form the political style of the speaker» [1, 287].
Argumentation, in turn, finds the expression in certain strategies. In communication strategy is considered to be as an awareness of goals and the determining of means to achieve them. The main argumentation strategies developed by Aristotle include persuasion through logical-causal arguments, arguments related to the character and reputation of the persuader and emotional arguments [5, 132]. O. L. Mikhaleva believes that in political discourse three strategies are formed: Theatre Strategy, Increase Strategy and Decrease Strategy. Each strategy of political discourse is implemented through the use of a specific set of tactics. A tactics is a specific part of a strategy implementation determined by the speaker's intention and explicated by a set of techniques. According to the author there are a tactics of implicit self-presentation, a tactics of inducement, a tactics of cooperation, a tactics of promise, a tactics of informing, etc. [3, 45-58]. In our opinion, these strategies are interrelated with argumentation strategies in presidential discourse as the goal of it is to convince the audience in the president's true position. Let's consider in detail the implementation of the argumentation strategies in the speeches of the 44th and 45th American presidents.
Theatre Strategy. The presence of an addressee-observer in the presidential discourse determines the
implementation of the Theatre Strategy [3, 57]. Theatre Strategy is implemented primarily through those techniques and tactics that appeal to the feelings of the audience, for instance, Donald John Trump cites the facts and arguments of the failure of the previous President's ruling and consistently reports about the obligations that he is going to fulfill as the President of the country, implementing the tactics of promises. In our opinion, the slogan We will has a powerful suggestive potential — unobtrusive «imposition» of his thoughts:
Example 1. America will start winning again, winning like never before. We will bring back our jobs. We will bring back our borders. We will bring back our wealth. And we will bring back our dreams [Trump 2017].
The same tactics one can see in individual discourse of Barack Obama (Obamite discourse):
Example 2. Tonight, I'm announcing the creation of a Trade Enforcement Unit that will be charged with investigating unfair trading practices in countries like China (Applause.) There will be more inspections to prevent counterfeit or unsafe goods from crossing our borders. «...». Our workers are the most productive on Earth, and if the playing field is level, I promise you -America will always win. (Applause.) [Obama 2012].
Presidents try to unite with the addressee - with people by introducing we-inclusive: it is they (the President and the people) who are able to correct the situation in the country and ensure a bright future by implementing the tactics of cooperation: the speaker chooses language means that serve to «activate those mental structures by which he represents himself as belonging to a certain social stratum» [3, 28]. In other words presidents try to create the appearance of common interests, evoke a sense of solidarity and act together:
Example 3. For everywhere we look, there is work to be done. The state of our economy calls for action, bold and swift. And we will act, not only to create new jobs, but to lay a new foundation for growth. We will build the roads and bridges, the electric grids and digital lines that feed our commerce and bind us together. ... All this we can do. All this we will do [Obama 2009].
Example 4. We, the citizens of America, are now joined in a great national effort to rebuild our country and to restore its promise for all of our people. Together, we will determine the course of America and the world for years to come [Trump 2017].
Increase Strategy. This strategy reflects the speaker's desire to maximize the significance of his own status. This strategy is implemented through a tactics analysis - «plus» - based on the facts of consideration, analysis of the situation and suggesting an implicit expression of the speaker's positive attitude to the described situation. The implementation of this tactics can be seen in the best possible way in the inaugural speech of Donald John Trump, who first gives the problems that exist in the country and then with the help of strong arguments presents a program to solve them:
Example 5. Washington flourished - but the people did not share in its wealth. Politicians prospered -but the jobs left and the factories closed. «...». We've made other countries rich while the wealth, strength,
and confidence of our country has disappeared over the horizon. «...». But that is the past. And now we are looking only to the future. We assembled here today are issuing a new decree to be heard in every city, in every foreign capital, and in every hall of power. From this day forward, a new vision will govern our land. From this moment on, it's going to be America First [Trump 2017].
In addition, in his State of the Union Address Trump presents the results of his ruling during the last three years - the great return of America implementing the information tactics: economic achievements (taxation, trade agreements and etc.) and work with Congress. The key concepts are positevely emotional adjectives great, incredible, thriving and highly respected:
Example 6. Three years ago, we launched the great American comeback. Tonight, I stand before you to share the incredible results. Jobs are booming, incomes are soaring, poverty is plummeting, crime is falling, confidence is surging, and our country is thriving and highly respected again. (Applause.) From the instant I took office, I moved rapidly to revive the U.S. economy — slashing a record number of job-killing regulations, enacting historic and record-setting tax cuts, and fighting for fair and reciprocal trade agreements. (Applause.) ... And for all of these reasons, I say to the people of our great country and to the members of Congress: The state of our Union is stronger than ever before. (Applause.) [Trump 2020].
The idea of renewing relations between America and other countries is reflected in the issues raised by the presidents in their inaugural speeches. Using the method of assertiveness, the presidents suggest moving away from aggression, violence, conflicts, and wars to the tolerance, respect and partnership. The choice of key themes in the speeches of American presidents is not accidental. Each time they emphasize their awareness in every particular issue demonstrating their personal experience or the experience of their country or people:
Example 7. We are the keepers of this legacy. Guided by these principles once more we can meet those new threats that demand even greater effort, even greater cooperation and understanding between nations. We will begin to responsibly leave Iraq to its people and forge a hard-earned peace in Afghanistan. With old friends and former foes, we'll work tirelessly to lessen the nuclear threat, and roll back the specter of a warming planet [Obama 2009].
Example 8. We will seek friendship and goodwill with the nations of the world - but we do so with the understanding that it is the right of all nations to put their own interests first. «...». We will reinforce old alliances and form new ones - and unite the civilized world against Radical Islamic Terrorism, which we will eradicate completely from the face of the Earth [Trump 2017].
In addition to the strategies discussed above, there are also Pathos Strategies, for instance, the discourse of Barack Obama is characterized by the presence of preaching strategies that make his speech pathetic. According to V. Beasley, Obama's discourse is distinguished by a new political myth - pluribus et unum:
achieving social unity while preserving diversity. This is the goal of the 44th President's argumentative strategies which proclaim that the nation is united by God (God's chosen people), that its faith and beliefs are un-shakeable (a collective identity based on shared beliefs that are both sacred and sanctified) and that the American nation is a unique one (Americans at least discreetly «stand apart» from the rest of the world) [6, 96]. In other words, the Pathos Strategies of B. Obama's discourse are aimed at establishing an emotional connection with the audience:
Example 9. America. In the face of our common dangers, in this winter of our hardship, let us remember these timeless words. With hope and virtue, let us brave once more the icy currents, and endure what storms may come. Let it be said by our children's children that when we were tested we refused to let this journey end, that we did not turn back nor did we falter; and with eyes fixed on the horizon and God's grace upon us, we carried forth that great gift of freedom and delivered it safely to future generations [Obama 2009].
As one of the component of presidential discourse is a rhetorical one, Obamite discourse shows its frequent use. The 44th President of USA activates the attention of the audience and increases its receptivity. Let's demonstrate this statement with the examples:
Example 10. Will we approach the world fearful and reactive, dragged into costly conflicts that strain our military and set back our standing? Or will we lead wisely, using all elements of our power to defeat new threats and protect our planet? [Obama 2015]
Example 11. But even if the planet wasn't at stake; even if 2014 wasn't the warmest year on record—until 2015 turned out even hotter—why would we want to pass up the chance for American businesses to produce and sell the energy of the future? [Obama 2016]
Thus, the American presidential discourse is characterized by argumentative strategies among which the main ones are Increase Strategy and Theatre Strategy which in turn are implemented through such tactics and methods as a method of assertiveness, an information tactics, a tactics analysis - «plus», a tactics of cooperation, a tactics of promises. Moreover, the descriptive analysis of presidential speeches demonstrates the use of Pathos Strategy and rhetorical question in Obamite discourse in comparison with Trumpite discourse where there is no any ritorical question. All these linguistic means are aimed at increasing of the impact of speeches on the audience and related to the basic values of American society and aimed at creating a positive image of the country's leader. The usage of the linguistic means is different in different individual discourse of political leaders.
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