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Этномузыковедение
DOI: 10.25178/nit.2017.3.9
ARCHAIC OIRAT SUBSTRATUM OF THE "CIRCA-ALTAI MUSICAL KULTURKREIS IN TUVA
Ethnomusicology
АРХАИЧНЫМ ОЙРАТСКИЙ СУБСТРАТ СРЕДНЕАЛТАЙСКОГО КУЛЬТУРНОГО КРУГА
В ТУВЕ
Masahiko Todoriki
Kyoto University, Japan
Масахико Тодорики
Киотский университет, Япония
In the memory of Boris I. Tatarintsev (1939-2011).
Памяти Бориса И. Татаринцева (1939-2011).
Worldwide fame for Tuvan music is now immovable. The vocal phenomenon xoomei or Tuvan throat-singing, in particular, attracts music fans around the world. On the other hand, so called "overtone-singing" or "throat-singing," the vocal sound of a fundamental drone with a flute-like melody of a series of chosen formants, also is reported sporadically in Tibet, Xhosa, Rajasthan, Sardinia, USA, the former Yugoslavia etc. It is still challenging to define whether specific features can be distinguishable unifying various "overtone-singing" from other vocalization. However, it was implied the music, including throat-singing, among peoples dwelling the Sayano-Altai region can be well coordinating as a single musical Kulturkreis. Here is an attempt to reconstruct recent history of the music of this zone, consulting historical records and linguistic materials from Tuva and surrounding regions.
Keywords: Altai; Tuva; music; Tuvan throat-singing: overtone-singing; Mongolic; Turkic
Всемирная известность тувинской музыки сейчас незыблема. Вокальное явление хввмей или тувинское горловое пение, в частности, привлекает любителей музыки во всем мире. С другой стороны, так называемое «обертонное пение» или «горловое пение» вокальный звук фундаментального бурдона с флейтообразной мелодией из серии выбранных формантов также периодически появляется в Тибете, Косе, Раджастане, Сардинии, США, бывшей Югославии и т. д. По-прежнему сложно определить, могут ли специфические черты быть различимыми, объединяя различные «обертоновые пения» с другими вокализациями. Автор утверждает, что музыка, в том числе горловое пение, среди народов, проживающих в Саяно-Алтайском крае, помогает рассматривать территорию как единую музыкальную культурную область. Предпринята попытка восстановить недавнюю историю музыкальный культурный зоны, ознакомиться с историческими записями и лингвистическими материалами из Тувы и окрестных регионов.
Ключевые слова: Алтай; Тува; музыка; тувинское горловое пение: горловое пение; монгольский; тюркский
Todoriki, Masahiko, PhD, Post-Doctoral Researcher, Graduate School of Agriculture, Kyoto University. Postal address: Shiroyamadai 4-2-1, Kizugawa-city, Kyoto 619-0218, Japan. Tel.: +81-774-94-6405; fax: +81-774-94-6398. E-mail: todoriki.masahiko.2m@kyoto-u.ac.jp
Тодорики, Масахико — доктор наук (PhD), научный сотрудник (постдок) Высшей школы сельского хозяйства Университета Киото. Адрес: Shiroyamadai 4-2-1, Kizugawa-city, Kyoto 619-0218, Japan. Тел.: +81-774-94-6405; факс: +81-774-94-6398. Эл. адрес: todoriki.masahiko.2m@kyoto-u.ac.jp
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"However, the argument may not be particularly important. What matters is not to know whether some ingenious idea reached the society in question from outside, but rather to understand how it came to be accepted by that society, and what features of the economic and social organization there made the innovation so significant. To do this, we have to penetrate beyond simplistic and ultimately not very illuminating assertions of 'diffusion' and 'independent invention', and investigate the processes at work within the society itself. The old controversy between the diffu-sionists and the evolutionists has become irrelevant, and is not worth pursuing further. As we shall see, new approaches can offer a far more satisfactory solution"
(Renfrew, 1973: 124).
1. Introduction
Tuva gives us a very interesting point of view. The land itself is "small," relatively, compared to the vast Eurasian Continent. In fact, it is big enough1 (six times the size of Belgium (Manchen-Helfen, 1931: 140)) to provide roll of "the outland" to "big" countries, specifically China and Russia (Todoriki, 2009b). Tuvans, of course, know that well. There are many valuable hints how "the small" survive among "the big".
The "peculiarity" of vocalization of Tuvan throat-singing, xdomey, is a cultural icon representing such "outlandness" of Tuva. The sign tends to be construed often in the spiritual context, both of the supply side and demand. As long as vocalization is a human activity, there must be the specific way of in situ social acceptance, as an "art form" or "spiritualism." My interest is to study the social function, and the historical trace of how the situation settled like that. In this article, the latter will be discussed.
Vocalizations known as "overtone singing" or "throat-singing" have been reported from Tibet2, Xhosa, Rajasthan, Sardinia, USA3, the former Yugoslavia4, etc. Those reports, unfortunately, are only preliminary, and are awaiting further detailed studies. Compared with those, as I will discuss below, the throat-singing tradition reported from the peoples of the region surrounding the Altai Mountains, has been paid attention to the similarity among them since the early 20th century (Anokhin, 2005: 54). Besides, when Gyorgy Kara summarized the Mongolian epics into several groups, Oirat5 epics, including famous Zhangar, were classified as one group (Kara,
1 170,500 km2 more exactly.
2 The statement by Carole Pegg; "lamas in the dGe-lugs-pa monasteries of Gyume and Gyuto in Tibet were trained from the age of twelve for tantric ritual performance to produce sounds which have been called xoomii" (Pegg, 1992: 32) seems a misquotation from Smith and Stevens 1967 (p. 211). The term "xoomii" is otherwise invisible in the article. Also, phonetic vowel lengths are restricted in Tibetan language (U-Tsang Tibetan). So, we need to assure whether the long vowel do in xoomii is acceptable in Tibetic languages, and which context they use it for. So far to avoid further secondary mis-citations (Cf. Tatarintsev, 1998: 9, 52), I am making a specific mention of this.
3 Cf. Pegg, 1992: 32-33; Tongeren, 2004: 145-161.
4 Cf. Vargyas, 1968: 72.
5 WOI / WMO Oyirad (Lessing et al., 1973: 605; Krueger, 1978-1984, 1: 117).
НОВЫЕ ИССЛЕДОВАНИЯ ТУВЫ W THE NEW RESEARCH OF TUVA
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1970: 205-207). He also touched upon the issue of one of the Oirat epic Khan-Kharangui distributed in Eastern Tuva1. Then, Carole Pegg followed up and expanded it wider both geographical area and materials she used (Pegg, 2001: 11-15). The first scholar who conducted detailed linguistic study on music in this region was Boris I. Tatarintsev (1998).
Building on the studies mentioned above, I'd like to shed light on what makes Tuvan music great, as much as I could.
2. Recent history of Tuva and the Soyano-Altai region
To know the local history is very important for understanding the local music. Before I start to describe the music, let me try to summarize the local history first (Fig. 1), mostly as it appears in Istoriia Tuvy, 1964; Ewing, 1981; Todoriki, 2010. My own contribution will especially focus on clarifying what was the prestige (Winford, 2003) for the local people. Other materials are acknowledged in the sources, respectively.
superstratum 2
superstratum 1
209 BC 93 __.,_▼ ,
Xiongnu
substratum ____
( "Tuvan people" )___1
(The Secret History of the Mongols)
J000 1208
Rouran Turk
(Jami' al-tawarikh)
Kyrgys
647 (Zhen-guan 21) Dou-bo sen
delegates to the Tang Court _▼_
Kyrgys
Khitan
Oirat
Kyrgys
Tubas / Tuqas / Tumat
(The Secret History of the Mongols)
Tumat
(Jami' al-tawarikh)
1921
Manchu (Great Qing) W(Soviet U.)
(R. of Russia)
Khalkha Mongol/
2000
Oirat
chaotic times (Russian E.) (R. of China) (Bolsheviks)
*First Khotgoid administration known as "Altyn-Khan"
402
552
745
84'
ca. 201 BC
Fig. 1. Tuvan historical chronical.
Рис. 1. Тувинская историческая хроника.
There are some difficulties, however, in retracing the Tuvan history, mostly because of paucity of written sources. Ethnic identity of modern Tuvans can be said to have arisen during the 20th century under strong Russian influence, yet, it was reported that "Sayantsy" or "Uryankhaitsy" self-designate as "Tuba2," at least in early 19th century (Klaproth, 1823: 150-151; Castren, Schiefner 1857: v; Potanin, 1881-1883, 2: 7; Katanov, 1903: II; Hajdu, 1950: 100; Radloff, 1968: 176; Menges, 1995: 47).
1 The Southern-Altai Turkic people also possess the Zhangar epic tradition (Iangar, 1997).
2 Not only Tuvans and Tofa(lar)s, this autonym was also shared with Koibals and Mators (both spoke extinct South-Samoyedic languages; Kamas and Mator, respectively) during 19th century (Hajdú, 1950: 99-100; Helimski, 1997; Künnap, 1999; etc.). Koibals assimilated into Khakas people, and Mators into Tofa. According to that, the self-designation was considered of South-Samoyedic origin, presumably comparable to KAM t'ipi, t'ibs, t'zbi, t'ifii, t'ibi "human, husband" or MAT tihi "human, husband" (Donner, Joki, 1944: 71; Hajdú, 1950: 99-100; Helimski, 1997: 359). See also footnote 5 (p. 152), 1 (p. 156).
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It is basically accepted that when ШШ Dou-bo (or ШШ Dou-bo) sent the embassies to the Tang China in шШ Zhen-guan 21 (647 AD), the name of Tuvan people was mentioned for the first time1 (ex. Istoriia Tuvy, 1964, 1: 7, 179-180; Menges, 1995: 47). The first relatively detailed report on Xin-Tangshu "the Book of Tang"
(chapter 217 part 2) described their life as follows: 1) ЖШШ'ЬШ, ШШШ, "Their land in the north extends to the "small sea" (probably meant lake Khovsgol, or not impossibly lake Baikal), in the west to Kyrgys, and in the south to Uigur," 2) S m^a "Dwelling tents made of grass," 3) ^ШШШ, ШЖШШ,
ЙЙ, Ш, ШМЯ. "They do not know cattle breeding, nor farming. They feed on the roots of lilies instead of rice, hunting fishes, birds and beasts" (Ou-yang, Song, 1975: 6144). Further, Doubo was one of the three tribes of ЖШ^М Mu-ma tu-jue "the wooden-horse Turks." The "wooden-horse" meant skis (Ibid.: 6148). According to the description, Doubo is rather comparable to the latter-day Tofa(lar) (Mel'nikova, 1994) or Tozhu Tuvans (Vainshtein, 1961), not the steppe dwelling Tuvans. This idea can be supported by the fact that the earliest Korean map of the world2, made in 1402
Fig. 2. The Korean map of the world and the "place of Tumat". Рис. 2. Корейскаякартамира и «место Тумата».
1 According to Takao Moriyasu, a Tibetan travelogue, possibly drawn up in 787-848, discovered from Dun-huan by Paul Pelliot (material No. P. 1283), mentioned the region called TIB Gud, which can be identical with Doubo (Moriyasu, 2015: 56). This can teach us that the acceptance is not necessarily apparent.
2 KOR Honil gangni yeokdae gukdo ji do / CHI —fifiUMf^I^^IB Hun-yi jiang-li li-dai guo-dou zhi tu "Map of Integrated Lands and Regions of Historical Countries and Capitals." The map was made during the Ming rule, but the geographical information from circa-Altai region was obtained during the Yuan (Todoriki, 2010: 278).
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(Robinson, 2007), mentioned CHI Tu-ma de "place of Tumat1" (Fig. 2), where
Khovsgol was presumably situated (my observation at the Kyoto University Museum in May 2009. This group of maps is subdivided into several lines, and the detailed studies don't exist yet).
The Tang (618-907) was the era which first attracted attention of the literate world2 to this area in certain resolution, although the light it shed faded quickly.
After the unification of Mongolian Plateau under Temujin, he was recommended to be the first Mongol ruler, and renamed "Chinggis Khan" in 1206. Successively, the peoples dwelling in the upper Yenisei region ("the Peoples of the Forest3") also became united under his rule4, led by the newly emerged group of peoples, the Oirats ("Ten-thousand5 Oirat"). This region was given to Jochi, the eldest son of Chinggis Khan, though virtually belonging to Oirats (Rashid-ad-Din, 1946-1960, 1(2): 269; Okada, 1974: 822). The single "ten-thousand" among the Peoples of the Forest, Kyrgys6, too, were subordinated to Oirats, after this. At this moment, their prestige among the region was transferred to Oirats, and never restored again7 (Fig. 1).
Oirats were a group which consisted mainly of Western Mongolian peoples, and held exclusive prestige among the peoples dwelling the western half of the Mongolian Plateau. Since then, Oirat was the opposing force to the eastern half of the Plateau, Mongol, preserving the high prestige of paternal lineage from Chinggis Khan.
During this replacement, among the Peoples of Forest we can find the names
1 Cf. footnote 5 (p. 152).
2 There were detectable multiple writing systems, not only in Chinese and Tibetan literatures (see also footnote 1 (p. 150)), the local Turkic people developed an Old Turkic alphabet on their own, of runiform and the varieties until early 8th century (Erdal, 2004: 4). The Bugut Inscription, originally erected at Ikh-Tamir, Ar-Khangai Province, central Mongolia, written in Sogdian and undeciphered text of Brähmi script, is even earlier than the Tang in 6th century (Moriyasu, Ochir, 1999: 121-125). At the same time, (Yenisei-)Kyrgys, kept and maintained certain prestige among local Tuvans, which can be seen from the fragment written by Menander Protector in Greek; When Byzantine diplomat Zemarchus visited the Turkic Khagan "Dizabul" in 568, just before Turkic Khanate separated to Eastern and Western, "Dizabul" gave Zemarchus a female slave stolen from GRE Xep/i? Cherchis (or Xep/ip Cherchir) (Müller, 1851: 228; Blockley, 1985: 120-121, Note 265). And this Cherchis or Cherchir depended on the text is accepted as the Kyrgys. Kyrgys, was the earliest possible ethnonym among circa-Altai peoples appearing written source as CHI SM ge-kun, by the time of 201 BC, when they submitted to Xiongnu (sima et al., 1982, 9: 2893; Menges, 1995: 49). They also built solid relationships with foreign countries, not only China, also Arab, Tibet, Karlyk, etc., during the Tang (Ou-yang, Song, 1975: 6149).
3 CHTMH = WMO hoy-yin irgen (Rachewiltz, 2004: 163-164).
4 This incident is dated 1207 (the Secret History of Mongols) or 1208 (the Jämi' al-tawärikh). For Mongol, the governance of the Peoples of the Forest was an indirect rule via Oirats.
5 CHT = WMO tümen literally meant "ten thousand," which means a military division.
6 CHT ^n^g = WMO tümen Kirgisud (Rachewiltz, 2004: 164).
7 In 1688, Kyrgys prince "Erenak Isheev" helped Oirats and fought against Mongols (Russko-mongol'skie otnosheniia, 1685-1691, 2000: 184). Even in the 18th century, Oirat superiority upon circa-Altai peoples, including Kyrgys, can be testified also in Manchu and Chinese documentations (Yanagisawa, 2005: 5).
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of CHT ^Bb = WMO Tubas1, CHT = WMO Tuqas2 (Rachewiltz, 2004:
164; Kuribayashi, Choijinjab, 2001: 472-475). No further information about them can be found neither in the Secret History of Mongols, nor in Jami' al-Tawarikh "the Compendium of Chronicles3." On the other hand, the upper Yenisei region4, which Oirats occupied during 13th century, was the former homeland of the Tumat5 people (Rashid-ad-Din, 1946-1960, 1(1): 118; Okada, 1974: 823). Concluding from those bare hints, we can suggest that the names Tuba ~ Tuqa ~ Tuma can be identical (Istoriia Tuvy, 1964: 7, 179-180).
The first clear evidence of the spread of Buddhism to west Tuva dates to this time, too (Masumoto, 2003).
Fig. 3. Oirat terrirory of Togon andEsen (1438-1454). 1453 (Okada' 1974: 834). aS S00n
Рис. 3. Ойратские террирории Тогона и Эсена (1438-1454). as in the following year, he was killed.
1 Plural form of Tuba. Written Mongolian plural suffix -s is attached to word-finals in vowels or in the diphthong ai (Poppe, 1954: 70).
2 Plural form of Tuqa (see footnote above).
3 A work of Persian literature and history about Mongols by Rashid al-Din. Both PER / ARA versions have
the title in Arabic j^jJl Jami' al-Tawarikh. The manuscripts are separated into multiple lineages, and a decent revised text doesn't exist, yet. I consulted Rashid-ad-Din, 1946-1960.
4 According to the Compendium of Chronicles (the first section Bab-i Awwal "the Mongol and Turkish tribes"), the place was called the Eight Rivers, "Sekiz Muren" (Rashid-ad-Din, 1946-1960 1(1): 118), presumably CHG *Sekkiz Moran (Doerfer, 1963, 1: 506-507; 3: 259-260; Clauson, 1972: 823).
5 Plural form of Tuma. Tumat < *Tuma-d. Written Mongolian plural suffix -d may be added to various word-finals (Poppe, 1954: 70-71). The Secret History of Mongols; CHT %Ш8 = WMO Tumat (Rachewiltz, 2004: 165-166, 246, 247, 857-858, 862; Kuribayashi, Choijinjab, 2001: 476-481). Kuribayashi and Choijinjab 2001 transliterated this as Tumet, though I do not take it here. It frequently appeared in union with a people called CHT = WMO Oori, later BUR Хори Буряад XoriBuryad, as WMO Oori-Tumat (See also Fig. 2). Tumat was very resistive to Mongols and fairy strong. This name can be find as a family name in Tuva, also name of mountains TUV Тумат Тайга Tumat Tayga / CHI ^ЖШШШ Duo-mu-da Tai-ga / WRM Tumat tayiya (Istoriia Tuvy, 1964, 1: 180; Ondar, 2004: 182; Todoriki, 2008: 212). See also footnote 2 (p. 149), 1 (p. 156).
6 Taishi is the title used for distinguished non-Chinggisid rulers among the Mongols, Oirats, and Buryats etc. Taishi originated CHI ^ffi tai-shi "grand preceptor" (Atwood, 2004: 526-527).
Mongol territory
Oirat territory
After the collapse of the Mongolian Empire, Oirat ruler Toyon Tayisi6 successfully reunited the Mongol tribes, then crowned Mongol ruler Toytoya Buqa as their own khan in 1438. Oirats possessed no "right" to be a Mongol khan because they had no paternal lineage from Chinggis Khan. During the reign of his son, Esen Tayisi, the de facto Oirat territory reached its maximum extension (Fig. 3). Esen finally killed his own ruler Toytoya Buqa, and declared himself khan in
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After a while, Mongol ruler Dayan Khan took Mongolia in 1486 (Fig. 4). Then, his grandson, Altan Khan of the Tumet, expanded the territory against Oirat to the west up as far as Mongolia today, and completely weakened the knees of Oirat before his death in 1582 (Fig. 5; Okada, 1974: 835; Atwood, 2004: 9-10).
Mongol territory Oirat territory
Fig. 4. Mongol territory of Dayan Khan (1487-1524). Рис. 4. Монгольская территория Даян-хана (1487-1524).
Mongol territory Oirat territory
longol territory of Altan Khan of Tumet (maximum) and Oirat
Fig. 5Mongol territory of Altan Khan of Tumet, and Oirat (1541-1582). Рис. 5. Монгольская территория Алтан-хана Тюмет и Ойрат (1541-1582 гг.).
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Mongol territory Oirat territory
Oirat territory during the reign of Galdan Bo ian (maximum)
1670-1697
andJ^e a n (including Altyn Khan)
Fig. 6. Oirat territory of Galdan Boshigtu (1670-1697).
Рис. 6. Ойратская территория Галдана Бошигту (1670-1697).
According to this advantage against Oirats, Mongol sent Altan Khan's nephew WMO Soloy Ubasi Oontayiji (1547-1627?) from Khotgoit1 to the place where Oirats dwelled, approximately modern Tuva and Khakas (Fig. 6), to rule them after 1600 (Atwood, 2004: 310). The three generations of the First Khotgoit administration (Todoriki, 2010: 269), Sholoi Ubash Khontaizh, his son WMO Badma Ombo Erdene Ountayiji, and grandson WMO Erincin Lobsang Tayiji, was called "Altyn Khan2" in Russian documents. The prestige of Altyn Khan family fizzled out after 1667 (Atwood, 2004: 310). It was later replaced by the Second Khotgoit administration, and the first ruler was Genden WMO Gendün Erke Dayicin (Chuluun, Khatanbaatar, 2011: 52-53, 275276), followed by his successors. Genden's reign was disrupted by an excellent Oirat ruler Galdan Boshigt WMO Galdan Bosoytu3 (1644-1697) (Fig. 6). After the death of
1 MON Хотгойд xotgoyd/ WMO qotuyuyid: a branch of Khalkha Mongols (Atwood 2004: 310). This designation originated from the name of Sholoi Ugashi's father, Khotgor WMO Tümendara Dayicin Ootuyur, from the family of Tüsheet Khan (Chuluun, Khatanbaatar, 2011: 271-272).
2 Алтын царь Altyn caf, Золотой царь Zolotoi caf "golden emperor," etc. Literary meaning Turkic "gold" TUV aldm / CTU *altu:n "gold" (Clauson, 1972: 131), and Mongolic WMO alta(n) "gold" (Lessing et al. 1973: 33), possibly after Altan Khan of Tümet. Also called "Altan Khan of Khalkha", as distinguished from Altan Khan of Tümet. This khan's title was actually external for Russia, their actual Mongolian title was lower, khontaizh MON хунтайж xuntaiz < CHI S^i huang-tai-zi "prince." (Miyawaki, 1983:185; Todoriki, 2010: 268).
3 MON Галдан Бошигт Galdan Boshigt. In 1678, Galdan was bestowed the title of khan by the Dalai Lama, and, surprisingly, was officially accepted because of Dalai Lama's prestige (Atwood, 2004: 193-194). He became the first and last non-Mongol khan.
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Galdan Boshigt, however, Oirats never succeeded in invading this region again1. And just as Oirats and Khalkha, the Second Khotgoit slowly but soundly shifted under the control of the Qing.
On the other hand, the land of Kyrgys, subordinated to Oirats, became a colony of Russian Empire.
The Upper Yenisei region became part of the domain of the Qing in 1750s (Ewing, 1981: 183-184), and was reorganized into Tannu Uriankhai, the first precursor of the Tuva Republic of today. The official seal2 was issued in Qianlong 25 (1760). According to documents3, Tannu Uriankhai remained relatively peaceful (Ibid.: 184).
The region of the later Altai Republic, and of the Altai mountain range was also reorganized during 1750s into Altai-nuur Uriankhai, and Altai Uriankhai, respectively, by the Qing. After the chaotic period of Qing collapse (1912), and the October Revolution (1917), Tannu Uriankhai was finally annexed to Soviet-Russia in 1921, and became "Tuva."
As we could see from the above, the Oirat alliance, frequently referred to as WMO Dorben Oyirad "the Four Oirats" during the Ming (Okada, 1974; Miyawaki, 1983), held certain power and prestige in this region from 13th century to 18th century. Even in 20th century, Southern Altaians were called collectively "Oirots" before 1948. Moreover, there is a sub-ethnic group called Oyrat among the Khakas people (Baskakov, Inkizhekova-Grekul, 1953: 357). For Tuvan people, an obsolete designation for Mongolian people was Oolet4, an early designation for Oirat people (Okada, 1974: 837-838, 859-861). Now it was replaced by Моол Mool5 < WMO Mongyol "Mongol." Leonid P. Potapov mentioned that among the peoples dwelling around the Altai mountain region, Tuvans (Uriankhai), Teleuts and Altaians were not strictly separated. He concluded the reason for this; perhaps, is that the abovementioned regions of Altai were under the rule of "Zuungar Khanate (Джунгарского ханства)6" (Potapov, 1969: 124).
1 Galdan Boshigt's nephew CewangRabtan expand the Oirat territory toward to Kazakh, then to south occupied Lhasa (Atwood, 2004: 550). Then Tsevan Ravtan's son.Galdan Ceryin expanded toward west to Kazakh to Russia as his father (Ibid.: 194).
2 I'm preparing a paper on this, according to preliminary report (Todoriki, 2016).
3 Far as I checked in First Historical Archives of China, National Palace Museum of Taipei, and Academia Sinica, most of Chinese and Manchurian documents on Tannu-Uriankhai dealt with horse stealers incidents.
4 0елет Oolet "Mongolian (obsolete)" (Tenishev, 1968: 337) < WMO Oolot / MON 0елд Oold "a widely used tribal name among the Oirat" (Atwood, 2004: 425-426) < WMO Ogeled "the Olets (a Western Mongolian tribe)" (Lessing et al., 1973: 631).
5 Tuvan long vowels came as a secondary development with the contraction of a former Vowel-Consonant-Vowel pattern. In this case, mongyol > *moyol > mool (Khabtagaeva, 2009: 44).
6 Zuungar, MON 3YYHrap / WMO jegun-gar "east, left hand, left wing" (Lessing et al., 1973: 350), is a main ethnic group among Oirats. This statement is rather based on "Soviet" understanding. One thing I have to note: as stated above, Oirats cannot be Mongol khans, and the one and only exception was Galdan Boshigt (see text and footnote 1 (p. 155)), and the title of other Zuungar rulers bore was all lower, khontaizhs (see footnote 2 (p. 154)). Therefore, this term can hardly be adopted today (Miyawaki 1991; Atwood, 2004: 621-624, 628).
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3. The "circa-Altai1 musical Kulturkreis2"
3.1 Musical instruments
Early Chinese reports about (Yenisei-)Kyrgys musical instruments can be traced back to the Tang, and there were; ffi di "horizontal flute," M gu "drum," ^ sheng "end-blown flute," bi-li "double reed flute," pang-ling "a kind of cymbal?" (Ou-yang, Song, 1975: 6148). However, there is not enough evidence to describe the music scene of those times3. Even seven centuries later, it was still dim to see which kind of music they were playing. Only some fragments of information could be recovered.
The gift items from Ming court to Oirat ruler Esen Taishi (Fig. 3) included musical instruments, such as He pi-pa "pipa-lute," huo-bo-si "qobuz-lute4," ^M
1 I use the name "Altai", and not "Sayano-Altai" for several reasons; 1) considering the distribution of the peoples sharing this culture, the epicenter is more southwestward from the Sayan mountain range, and the Oirat holy mountain (Mt. Bogd Uul) belonging to the Altai mountain range (Miyawaki, 1983: 163), 2) the name of the Altai, "the Gold mountain(s)," or the equivalent, can trace back in the Eastern Han era of 91 AD, when the Northern Xiongnu was defeated by the Han Chinese army (Todoriki, 2009a: 47), and Sayan appeared eventually in 1617 (Russko-mongol' skie otnosheniia, 1607-1636, 1959: 56), just after the first Russian embassy from Tomsk to Altyn Khan in 1616. The Sayan (Soyon, and others) played overwhelmingly a less important role than the Altai. Julius H. Klaproth gave us an interesting story about Soyot, people dwelling in the place of Sayan: Soyot, living in the mountain area of Tunkinskii region (MT: now Irkutsk oblast) was former "Tuban," originally one of the Samoyed tribes. Before the conquest of Siberia by Russians, they consisted of three tribes, each of which had own princes. They were very numerous and belligerent, and inhabited the eastern side of the Yenisei in the neighborhood of the Tuba (MT: there is Tuba river northern from Minusinsk city). But the war dispersed them among Samoyed and Turkic tribes. The few, who are among the Kachins (Cf. footnote 1 (p. 160), have long forgotten their own language and have thus become, by mixing with their neighbors, Turkics. A part of the "Tubans" subjugated itself to the Russian in 1618. Many of them, however, together with the Kyrgys, entered the Kontaisha of the Oolot-Kalmucks (MT: meant Oirat). At that time, the "Tubans" had a very brave Prince named Soit, and following him, this tribe fled into the high mountains, and named Soyot after him (Klaproth, 1823: 150-151). On the name of Tuba, see footnote 2 (p. 149), 5 (p. 152). It is still obscure whether this lore can have some historical proof, though it cannot be excepted.
2 "Culture circle" in German. Cf. Frobenius, 1897.
3 Several musical instruments have been unearthed in this region (Todoriki, 2014: 53). The angular harp and hourglass drum from the frozen tombs of Pazyryk, Altai Republic, can be dated back in 5th century BC (Kara-matov, Meskeris, Vyzgo 1993: 50-53; Todoriki, 2014: 53). Those musical instruments are not connected to circa-Altai peoples as we know it today.
4 Mongolic term "khuur" (MON xyyp xuur; WMO quyur "arbitrary musical instrument"), originated from Turkic qobuz "arbitrary musical instrument" (Clauson, 1972: 588-589). Early appearance of WMO quyur in 1338 on
Zhu-wen-tei bei "Jeguntei's stele," and WMO quyur corresponding to CHI WM qin se (qin "zither in seven-strings without bridges," and se "zither in many strings with bridges"), possibly meant "arbitrary musical instrument" (Cleaves, 1951: 32, 51, 56, 63, 71, 100, plate XXX). Also, the Rasulid Hexaglot (1363-1377) MON quhurci "player of the quyur-lute" (Golden, 2000: 306, Ms. p. 205), then middle of 17th century Altan Tobci and Erdeni-yin Tobci mentioned WMO quyur "lute" (Cf. Ssanang Ssetsen, Go 1940: 25, 82; Bawden, 1955: 145; Zhi-chi-zi et al., 1974: 228). There is a name of a lady WMO Quyurcin Qatun (Lady Khuurchin) in 13th century the Secret History of the Mongols (Rachewiltz, 2004: 55-56, 58-59), though, it is quite difficult to accept the name originated quyurcin "khuur player." The linguistic data rejected the idea. It can be seen as a transitional form CTU qobuz into WMO quyur_as CHT ^^^ = *qubur "three-stringed (plucking) instrument" in one of the oldest Chinese-Mongolian vocabularies, S^fflf Zhi-yuan yi-yu, in 1280 (Cf. 4.2.3; Ishida, 1973: 100; Todoriki, 2012: 51-52). As far as I know, no report was made of this transition, though, Antoine Mostaert, perchance, recognized this transitional form (Cleaves, 1951: 100). Qobuz appeared first in China during the Yuan. Yuan-shi "the History of Yuan" mentioned this; huo-bu-si "resembling pipa-lute, bent head, long neck without frets, small body
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bian-gu "pellet drum? or frame drum with drumstick ?," ®>JPB la-ba1 "sorna, lettish horn, a wind instrument," hao-di = hao-tong2? "brass horn ?" in Zheng-tong 14 (1439) (Tamura, 1943-1959 Moko 3: 553-554). Then just after the Tumu Incident3 of September 1449, Ming court sent expensive gifts to Esen for capturing Emperor Zhengtong, several times. The gifts included lie pi-pa "pipa-lute," and ¥ zheng "zheng-zither." Even Esen himself played CHI hu-bo-si-er [sic]4 and
sang song(s), and ordered his men to join him, to please Zhengtong very same year (Tamura, 1943-1959 Moko 3: 274-275). Esen, again, played pipa-lute for farewell to Zhengtong in 1450 (Ibid.: 346-347).
As we said above, we do not clearly understand the music of circa-Altai peoples, the more so in mid-15th century. We can understand, however, that music was accepted among them, if even the ruler enjoyed singing and playing musical instruments. And
Fu H. et al. K^MEm^ Qin-ding huang-yu xi-yu tu-zhi (the Pictorial 11 accounts of the Western region in the Empire).
-|i|s № £
1756-1782
Fig.7. The Pictorial Account (1756-1782). Рис. 7. Иллюстрированный отчет (1756-1782).
1 Cf. ZYY, 1985: 215.
2 Cf. ZYY, 1985: 149.
3 It was a frontier conflict between Esen's military and the Ming at Tumu Fortress, Zhangjiakou city today. The military of the Ming totally defeated by Esen, and the Emperor Zhengtong was captured. Then, Esen finally released Zhengtong without ransom very next year (Atwood, 2004: 553).
4 Possibly a misspelling of CHI hu-bo-si or CHI hu-bo-er, which means qobuz "plucking instrument" of Turkic origin (Clauson, 1972: 588-589). See footnote 4 (p. 156).
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at least, some were not obviously of Chinese origin, especially the qobuz-lute, Turkic origin (see footnote 4 (p. 156)). Though, if we believe the Chinese documents, these were not the same as the Oirat musical instruments today. We have to wait until three centuries later to see those.
After big leaps of Qing conquest in Xinjiang and Mongolia, a lot of new information was brought to Qing China in 18th century. An important article of little studied, ^^ M^ffi^i^ Oin-dinghuang-yu xi-yu tu-zhi "the Authorized Version of the Pictorial Account of the Western Region of the Great Qing Empire" (hereafter the Pictorial Account) established in 1756-1782 by the Emperor Qianlong, contains detailed music information from Oirats Zhun-ga-er bu "Zuungar1") and Xinjiang Muslims
(0® Hui bu) (Fig. 7; Fu et al., 1970 5(40)).
Those descriptions of the musical instruments and music notations are the earliest source on music in this region. We know the total of thirteen Oirat musical instruments2, with detailed description, such as shapes, lengths, materials, how to play, etc. I'll refer to them later in this article. Now finally, we can see the earliest Oirat musical instruments which have survived to the present.
During the 19th century, non-Chinese scholars started to give accounts of those circa-Altai musical instruments. I'll also refer to them, respectively.
We have to note that the possible propagation pathway(s) of the musical instruments and their designations were frequently independent (Todoriki, 2009b: 99-105).
3.2 The circa-Altai throat-singing
There are several accounts described as the report of the throat-singing (or overtone-singing) in early-stage. I reexamined those articles, and will critically introduce those here. I also will separately discuss the throat-singing of the Bashqort (Bashkirs), later (Cf. 4.3).
Manuel Garcia (1805-1906), a Spanish musician and vocal scientist, reintroduced a collection of notes made by George Chastellain (1404-1475) in 15th century called Recollection des merveilles advenues en nostre temps "Recollection of the wonders that befallen in our time." One of the notes said, "I saw, it seems to me; A strong man of honour; Singing together with himself; Both above and below." (Ex. Buchon, 1837: liii; Pegg, 1992: 40). Garcia quoted this as an early evidence of "overtone-singing" (Garcia, 1847: 13; Pegg, 1992: 40; Tongeren, 2004: 160-161), and it can be possible. However, this is definitely not enough to classify this report as early evidence of circa-Altai throat-singing.
1 See footnote 1 (p. 156).
2 1. CHT ¡ffiM ya-tuo-ga = WMO *yatuy-a, 2. CHT yi-qi-er hu-er = WMO *ikil-quyur, 3. CHT
tu-bu-shu-er = WMO Hobsiyur, 4. CHT pi-pa hu-er = WMO *biba-quyur, 5. CHT
rn^W te-mu-er hu-er = WMO *temur-quyur, 6. CHT chuo-er = WMO *coyur, 7. CHT keng-
ge-er-ge = WMO *kenggerge, 8. CHT M cang = WMO *cang, 9. CHT ^^ deng-she = WMO *densig, 10. CHT TO hong-he = WMO *qonqa, 11. CHT Pi+JfM bi-shi-ku-er = WMO *biskigur, 12. CHT yi-ke
bu-le = WMO *ix-buriye, 13. CHT dong-bu-le = WMO *dung-buriye. Of these, I will take up in this
article four of them, 2, 3, 4, and 6.
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Carole Pegg reported a Chinese document of 16th century; "many sounds from the throat and the lips" (Pegg, 1992: 39). She advocated this is one of the earliest references of overtone-singing. We understand the document is IfcMMfà Bei-lu Feng-su, a report allegedly completed in 1595 (Serruys, 1945: 119). CHI itMBei-lu designates "northern barbarians," especially referring to Mongolians from Ming Chinese point of view, and literally means "northern slaves." This document is a precious source on the daily life of Mongolians, in the rule of Altan Khan of Tumet and his descendants (Fig. 5), through foreign eyes during the Ming (1368-1644). The author Da-heng Xiao (1532-
1612) was a Chinese officer, born in Tai-an, Shandong Province, Ming China. For many years, he held important positions in the office of the North Defense of the Ming. The report was based on Xiao's personal experience.
The Bei-lu Feng-su is divided into 20 chapters, and the abovementioned fragment is found in the "Habits and Preferences." Bolded and underlined portion in italics is the text Pegg referred to. Pegg used French translation by Henry Serruys, who was an authority of the Ming-Mongol relationship.
Original Chinese text (Xiao, 1936: 23);
•••ifiiii^s M^iHo Mmmïï&DÈm^ m^mn •••
French translation (Serruys, 1945: 153);
<Habitudes et Préférences>
••• Leur parler possède beaucoup de sons qui viennent de la gorge et de la langue; il n'est pas clair et coulant. Dans leurs chansons il y a beaucoup de sons de la gorge et des lèvres; elles ne sont ni sonores ni claires. •••
English translation;
<Habits and Preferences>
••• About their talk, there are many sounds from the throat and tongue, it is not clear and free. About their songs, there are many sounds from the throat and lips, they are neither resonant nor clear. •••
From the text above, it would be natural to understand that Xiao simply explained the "earthiness" of their speaking, and singing songs among local Mongolians. It is quite unlikely to induce a particular meaning to only the latter part of the couplet. If the latter text was the report of throat-singing, which is a very characteristic vocalism, the author would have explained it very differently. Moreover, those Mongolians were Eastern Mongolians under Altan Khan, not Oirat, Western Mongolians, who carried on the tradition of throat-singing.
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So, it is quite difficult to accept Pegg's remark that these are "the earliest apparent references to overtone-singing." I'd like to mention it before expanding further uncritical citations (Cf. Tongeren, 2004: 161).
In my opinion, the most acceptable earliest account of circa-Altai throat-singing was reported by a German scientist Peter S. Pallas, during his trip to Kalmyk and Siberia in 1768-1774 (Egerton, 2008: 53). He listened to the song(s) from Kachin Tatar1 at the Minusinsk basin (later the area of Khakas Republic and the southern portion of Krasnoyarsk Krai) in September 1772, and wrote:
Die Katchinisische Tataren haben die Kalmuckische Art bei der Laute in einem einförmigen, aus der Gurgel, fast wie eine Geigenseite sanst schnarrenden Ton zu singen, welcher sonderlich in freir Luft sehr angenehm zu hören ist.
"The Katchin Tatars have the Kalmyk manner of singing in a monotonous sound, from throat, sounded almost like the softly buzzing violin string, which is very pleasant to hear in free air" (Pallas, 1967, 3: 399; Emsheimer, 1991: 244).
It also tells us that he listened to the similar manner of recitation(s) before 1772 among the Kalmyks, possibly 1769. At the time of the moment, their mother group, Oirats, were defeated and under control by the Qing. Shortly before, in the winter of 1771, a part of Kalmyks dwelling in the eastern part of the Volga, escaped from Russian control to their motherland2 (Atwood, 2004: 288).
Subsequently, a Russian provincial prosecutor Nikolai A. Nefed'ev stayed among the Kalmyks of the Astrakhan province in 1832-1833, and wrote; "The tunes of the Kalmyk songs are monotonous and extremely dull, ••• The extraordinary length and transitions to the guttural sounds (к гортанным звукам), making up the main virtue in this song" (Nefed'ev, 1834: 217; Emsheimer, 1991: 244).
Those reports are precious, although too short to conclude the singing is identical with the circa-Altai throat-singing of today. We need preferably a sound source, and at least a piece of notation or some other objective scientific evidence. However, such materials date not earlier than to the 20th century. So, I choose the second best way, to find evidence of throat singing in local history and linguistic data.
1 The Kachins, originally dwelling in the neighboring area from Krasnoyarsk, were pushed off into what later became the Khakas Republic in 1629-1630 by Russians (Istoriia Khakasii ... , 1993: 176-177). Kachins are now assimilated into Khakas people.
2 That winter was warm and the river didn't freeze. So, one third of them were trapped on the western side of the Volga, and became the Kalmyks we know today.
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4. Tuvan music terminology and the circa-Altai musical Kulturkreis
4.1 Recent history of Tuvan music
4.1.1 Early researchers and travelers reported music in Tuva (19th century to 1950)
Radloff, Friedrich wilhelm (1837-1918): He traveled to Kara-Xol, west Tuva for only 4 days in July 1861 (Radloff, 1967, 1: xiv-xv; Radloff, 1968: 163-187). As a Turcologist, Radloff reported the first reliable Tuvan song lyrics (Radloff, 1967: 409-410).
Potanin, Grigorii Nikolaevich (1835-1920): He conducted expedition to northwest Mongolia in 1876-1878, then 1879-1880 to Altai, northwest Mongolia, and Tuva (Potanin, 1881-1883). Potanin made almost no mention of music, except connecting it with shaman rituals, although he did make a small comment on Tuvan songs (Potanin 1881-1883, 2: Примечание 48).
Katanov, Nikolai Fyodorovich (1862-1922): Researched in west Tuva in MarchAugust 1889. Katanov was a student of Radloff, and left the first comprehensive dictionary of Tuvan language of more than 4,000 words (Todoriki, 2011: 234), including musical terminology (Katanov, 1903), Tuvan texts, and some songs (Radlov, Katanov, 1907).
Ostrovskikh, Pyotr Evgen'evich (1870-1940): He traveled to Tozhu, east Tuva in 1897. At that moment, Tozhu was a colonial center for Russian. Many Tuvan workers gathered there from various regions asking for work (Ostrovskikh, 1898, 1927).
Raikov, M. (?): He traveled to Tozhu with Ostraovskikh in 1897. He left a tentative Tuvan song text (Raikov, 1898: 462).
Yakovlev, Evgenii Konstantinovich (?): Not much of him is known. He worked collecting materials for the Martyanov Natural History Museum of Minusinsk for years at the end of 19th century, and his collection included musical instruments from Khakasia and Tuva (Yakovlev, 1900: 114-115).
grumm-grzhimailo, grigorii Efimovich (1860-1936): He conducted an expedition to Tuva and Western Mongolia in 1903 (Grumm-Grzhimailo, 1914-1930), and in his notes mentioned Tuvan music, including throat-singing (Ibid., 3(1): 107-118).
Anokhin, Andrei viktorovich (1874-1931): After returning from political exile, he traveled to Altai, Khakasia, Tuva and Northern Mongolia in 1908-1914. As a music teacher, he left first phonograph cylinder recordings of actual sound of throat-singing from Southern Altaian (Altai-kizhi and Teleut) in 1910-1911, as far as I know. Evgenii Vladimirovich Gippius and Aleksei N. Aksyonov noted there were also first sound recordings of Tuvan throat-singing (1909) during the trip (Gippius, 1964: 5; Aksenov, 1964: 11), though the information must be wrong, as I add the comment below (4.1.2). Anokhin provided a detailed description of Tuvan throat-singing in 1910, though
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it stayed unpublished until recently (Anokhin, 2005). Anokhin subdivided Tuvan throat-singing into three types; "kuveiler," "kargrlap," and "sygyrtyp" (Anokhin, 2005: 56-58; Cf. 4.2.5, 4.2.6, 4.2.8).
Myagkov, I. M. (?): Of him also little is known. He expanded Anokhin's unpublished work, adding to it further comment and original information (Myagkov, 1931: 10-11).
Aksyonov, Aleksei Nikolaevich (1909-1962): After his visit to Tuva in 1943, he composed and published new orchestration for Tuvan music. He conducted a detailed study of Tuvan music and published a very influential book "Tuvan folk music," after his death (Aksenov, 1964). He established collective designation of Tuvan thorat-singing, xoomey, and four sub-styles; sigit, kargiraa, borbaynad'ir, ezeygileer (Ibid.: 11, 54-62, 171-187).
4.1.2 Early sound recordings from Tuva
Early Tuvan sound recordings were mentioned by Evgenii V, Gippius and Aksyonov (Gippius, 1964: 3-4; Aksenov, 1964: 14). According to Aksyonov, there were old "recordings" made in 19071. Though, it can be figured out the "recordings" probably meant music notations (it is unknown if the song texts were included) by Gippius (Ibid.: 3). Also, Aksyonov mentioned that there were "phonographs" from 1909, though it is presumable that "recordings" meant accounts made by Anokhin in his unpublished articles2 from the description of Gippius. As far as I checked, the earliest audio recordings of Tuvan music were made in 1927, of two Tuvan students studied in Leningrad (former and later St. Petersburg), O. Mandaraa and S. Serekkei. Those phonographs are preserved in the Pushkin House, St. Petersburg. There are four songs, at least, with natural voice, and two of them are seen in Aksyonov's book, both as music notations and original lyrics in Tuvan with Russian translation (Aksenov, 1964: 134, 220). The first phonograph, as far as I know, of Tuvan throat-singing, ezeygileer-style, was sung by Damdyn Trubacheev, recorded in 1932 in Verkhneudinsk, later Ulan-Ude (Ibid.: 187). This phonograph is also preserved at the Pushkin House. The first vinyl record, a set of seven single cuts (Gippius, 1964: 3-4), was released in 1934 by Grammplastrest NKPP. It included throat-singings by such old stars as Soruktu Kyrgys, and Kombu Ondar.
1 His way of writing is mistakable: "записаны впервые в 1907 году непосредственно с голоса певцов" ("recorded for the first time in 1907 directly from the voice of the singers.") (Aksenov, 1964: 14).
2 Cf. Anokhin, 2005: 56-58. It was finally published in 2005. Also, an undated Tuvan nursery song (without text), recorded the notation by Anokhin, is seen in another publication (Kompozitor Andrei Viktorovich Anokhin ... , 1989: 33-34).
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4.2 Tuvan music terminology
Please note: Here I carefully omitted Tuvan musical terms which capture the features of non-circa-Altai element; such as those etymologically traced back widely to Common Mongolic (nagaraH cadagan, Ke^mpre keygirge, etc.), Tibetic (ammSm limbi, KaHAMH kanliy etc.), and Common Turkic (aMwpra amirga, xoMyc xomus, etc.)1, unless it is considered relevant for the topic. Linguistic data of Tuvan language can be traced back to early 19th century (Todoriki, 2011), though first musical terms are detectable only for the latter half of 19th century (see below).
4.2.1 gomnyrayyp dospuluur "originally a two-stringed plucking instrument" (Fig. 8; Vertkov et al., 1975: 186-187, 227, fig 715; Suzukei, 1989: 36-39; Tatarintsev, 2000: 218-219; Todoriki, 2012: 42-45).
1) Variation: gonmyragyyp dopsulduur / gomnyra-gyyp dospulduur (Altai-Tuvan dialect) (Suzukei, 1989: 36) / Tonmyrayyp topsuluur (Katanov, 1903: 159, 432, 1282; Suzukei, 1989: 36-39) / dopsuur (Altai-Tuvan dialect) (Wu, 1999: 224).
2) History: A typical musical instrument of circa-Altai element, and the designation can only be found in this region. The earliest record is the Pictorial Account, CHT (in 1756-1782) tu-bu-shu-er = WOI *tobsuur / WMO *tobsiyur "a long-necked lute with two strings ofgut,trapezoidalbodywithsound hole(s), played with plectrum or fingers,
resembling Chinese er-xian" (Fu et al., 1970, 5 (40): 2-3). The first example of Tuvan variation was reported at the end of 19th century by Yakovlev and Ostrovskikh. Yakovlev wrote; "topshyulyur": a stringed instrument, with hollowed-out body, craw-covered table with a sound hole, and two strings made of hair. "topshyulyur" with a ball-shaped head bears the name "porbak bashtyg" (MT: probably 6op6aK 6am-Tbir borbak bastig "bulb headed"). It is used for accompaniment of story-telling and throat-singing "kumailer" (Yakovlev, 1900: 114). Also, as Ostrovskikh explained it, "topshyulyur" is a two-stringed
A
Fig. 8. A typical Tuvan dospuluur (left)
and of west Tuva (right). Рис. 8. Типично тувинский инструмент дошпулуур (слева) и инструмент из восточной Тувы (справа).
Fig. 9. Mural painting in Inner Mongolia (1143). Рис. 9. Изображение с фресковой живописи во Внутренней Монголии (1143 г.).
instrument, resembling the balalaika (Ostrovskikh, 1927: 89). A very similar musical instrument is depicted in a tomb at Aohan
1 I'm presuming those Common Turkic terms are much older substratum than circa-Altai elements.
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Banner, Inner Mongolia (Fig. 9; Torodiki, 2014), and is dated from the inscription in Khitan script, April MM Huang-tong 3 (1143) (Yoshimoto, Aisin-Gioro, 2015: 87).
3) Etymology: Mongolie origin; *tobsi-yur1 / *tobsi-ki-yur / *tobsi-l-quyur "plucking instrument2."
4) Etymological data:
OIR (Oolot dialect) towsur / tow&lur "three stringed mandolin, balalaika" (Fig. 10; Ramstedt, 1935: 404; Tatarintsev, 2000: 218-219).
OIR (Kalmyk dialect) TOBmyp tovsur "three-stringed plucking instrument of Kalmyk nation" (Kalmytsko-russkii slovar', 1977: 500).
S-ALT (Teleut dialect) Tonmyryp topsugur / Tonmyyp topsuur "two-stringed balalaika" (Verbitskii, 1884: 364).
Fig. 10. Tovsuur among Western Mongolians. Рис. 10. Товшуур западных монголов.
Fig. 11. Topsuur of Southern Altai and topcil of Khakas. Рис. 11. Топшуур Южного Алтая и топчыл хакасов.
S-ALT (Altai-kizhi dialect / Telengit dialect) Tonmyyp topsuur "two stringed balalaika" (Fig. 11; Ibid.: 364; Baskakov, Toshchakova, 1947: 154; Vertkov et al., 1975: 183-184, 227, fig 702; Kogunbaeva, 1991: 42; Shindin, 1997: 262).
N-ALT (Kumandy dialect) Tonmyyp topsuur / Tonmy6ap topsubar "a two stringed balalaika" (Rassadin, 1980 30-31; Kumandinsko-russkii slovar', 1995: 84; Tatarintsev, 2000: 218-219).
N-ALT (Tuba dialect) Tonmyyp topsuur "balalaika" (Baskakov, 1966: 156).
KHA Ton^bm topcil "name of a musical instrument of lute type" (Fig. 11; Butanaev, 1999: 150; Subrakov, 2006: 651).
SHO: n.d.
5) See also:
1 Mongolic deverbal suffix -gUr (-yor, -yur, -gor or -gur) (Poppe, 1954: 46; Rassadin, 1980: 23) or -(ki)-gUr, conceivably indicating objects including musical instruments (Cf. WRM qoyinayor "bell" (Kowalewski, 1844-1849: 874); WRM biskigur "oboe, trumpet" (Kowalewski 1844-1849: 1133; Lessing et al., 1973: 107); WRM coyur /cuyur "a kind of reed pipe" (Ibid.: 195, 206), WRM toysiyur "Watchman's rattle (a slightly convex hollowed-out piece of wood, with a slit at the top, that is struck with a stick); a curved drum stick used to beat the shaman's drum" (Ibid.: 815), etc.). It possibly impinged some degree on WRM quyur "any kind of musical instruments such as mouth-harp, fiddle and lute" (Kowalewski, 1844-1849: 886). See also footnote 3 (p. 169).
2 *tobsi-: Cf. OIR towsi- "to hit, to knock (onomatopoeic)" (Ramstedt, 1935: 404); WOI tomsi- "to hit, strike" (Krueger, 1978-1984 3: 506) ?; WMO tobsi- "to pluck, play a musical instrument pizzicato" (Lessing et al., 1973: 811).
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MON TOBmyyp tovsuur "a west Mongolian two-stringed plucked lute" (Bawden, 1997: 340).
WRM tobsiyur "a plucking string instrument" (Lessing et al., 1973: 812).
4.2.2 Mrafl igil "two-stringed bow instrument" (Fig. 12; Vertkov et al., 1975: 187, 227, fig. 716; Suzukei, 1989: 17-31; Tatarintsev, 2000: 337-338; Todoriki, 2012: 6-9).
1) Variation: эгм^ egil (Western dialect) (Suzukei, 1989: 17, 18) / irgil (Altai-Tuvan dialect) (Wu, 1999: 225).
2) History: Early bow instruments were developed in Central Asia, and the historical record can be traced back to the 10th century or earlier (Farmer, 1986: 75; Bachmann et al., 2001: 130-131; Todoriki, 2014: 59).
When Ahmed-oglu Sukrullah translated the Persian book of music, Kanzal-Tuhaf into Chagatai Turkic in 1402-1405 (Farmer, 1976: 100), he translated PER ghichak "spike fiddle of peoples in Central Asia" (Steingass, 2000: 881, 955, 1075; Baily, Sultanova, 2001) into CHG iqliq (Fig. 13; Ramstedt, 1935: 206; Farmer, 1976: 100; Farmer, 1986: 76; Bardakgi, 2008: 100-101, 246-247). Further, Mahmut R. Gazimihal mentioned articles recorded "igiik" (1312) and "yikiig" (1387) in 14th century and even earlier (Gazimihal, 1958: 12, 23; Farmer, 1976: 112). Those are possibly the earliest record of instruments of the circa-Altai igil correspondents, though further proof is required of the connection in between (Picken, 1975: 323). Considering that Ewliya Chelebi's Siyahat nama "the Travel Book" (17th century) has OTM iqliq "small viol of three strings" (Farmer, 1986: 674-675), now almost dying Turkish iklik2 / ikligi / ikliga (Picken, 1975: 192-193, 323-324; see also below) can be direct descendants of iqliq.
Its first appearance in circa-Altai region is 18th century among Oirats. The Pictorial Account recorded CHT (in 1756-1782) ffi^W^W yi-qi-er hu-er = WOI *yekeli-xuur /
Fig. 12. A typical Tuvan igil (left), and of south and east Tuvan (right). Рис. 12. Типичный тувинский игил (слева) и инструмент восточной Тувы (справа).
Fig. 13. Iqliq of Chagatai (14021405). Рис. 13. Ыклык Чагатая (14021405).
1 PER j^y ji ^Jl jS'*! L.j Resale Kanz al-tuhaf dar musiqi "The Casket of Musical Rarities"established in 1355 or 1363 (Ethe, 1903: 1491-1492).
2 Iklik (and the corespondents) has almost been replaced by kemen^e in Turkey (Picken, 1975: 324).
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WMO ЧШ-quyur "a fiddle with two strings of horse hair, round body, similar to Chinese hu-qin (Cf. 4.2.8: History)" (Fu et al., 1970 5(40): 2). Then again from Oirat, unknown instrument WOI yekeli (Cf. 4.2.8: History; also below) was reported in 19th century.
The first report from Tuva was made by Evgenii K. Yakovlev, and reported "igil'" as a "two-stringed instrument, a kind of balalaika" (MT: he probably confuses it with doshpuluur), with trapezoidal body (Yakovlev, 1900: 114).
Russian scholars concluded XAK ekeme / ikeme (both words are considered identical (Drevnetiurkskii slovar', 1969: 206; Kashgari, Atalay, 1985-1986, 1: 137; 3: 174)) could have been ancestral of the term igil (Suzukei, 1989: 18; Tatarintsev, 2000: 337-338), uncritically quoted from Древнетюркский словарь Drevnetyurkskiy slovar' "the Ancient Turkic dictionary," edited by Vladimir M. Nadelyaev and others, fairly influential dictionary (Drevnetiurkskii slovar', 1969: 167, 206). It said; ekeme / ikeme "musical instrument of skripka-violin kind" (Ibid.: 167).
The abovementioned words were originally quoted from KashgarFs ARA Diwan lughat al-Turk "Collection of the Turkic Languages," the earliest Arabic-Turkic dictionary completed in 1072-1073 (Kashgari, Atalay, 1985-1986, 1: v). The original article has:
XAK ekeme "a kind of musical instrument" (Kashgari, Atalay, 1985-1986, 3: 174).
XAK ikeme "a kind of saz, kubuz-like musical instrument" (Kashgari, Atalay, 1985-1986, 1: 137).
As it is clear from above, the conceivable conclusion is that ekeme / ikeme could be a plucking instrument. Though, Drevnetiurkskii slovar', 1969 changed this into "skrz'pka-violin kind" with no explanation. Gazimihal also concluded ekeme / ikeme can be the i'ql'iq ancestral form (Gazimihal, 1958: 13) without substantial reasons. So I have to conclude, there is no firm evidence ekeme / ikeme was a fiddle.
This musical instrument seems not to have been passed down after 11th century.
On the other hand, we cannot ignore Mongolic WMO kikili "a bowed string instrument" from earliest Mongolian-Manchurian glossary "ШШШШЯШ" Yu-zhi Man-Meng wen-jian "Manchurian-Mongolian dictionary" established in 1717 by the Emperor Kangxi (OMMK, 1977: 360). There are examples in early Mongolian (around 13th century), which add initial h- when borrowing from Turkic word beginning with vowels1 (Clauson, 1962: 208). In this case, CHG iql'iq turned into Mongolic *hikilik > WMO kikili looks quite possible. The word WMO kikili is now almost completely replaced by MON морин хуур morin xuur "horse-head fiddle," and scarcely surviving in Inner Mongolia as IMO xigili [xil ~ xi:l] (see below). Also, a word from Jurchen language (the precursor of Manchu language), possibly from the first half of 16th
1 Ex. Turkic okuz "ox" > Early Mongolic huker (MON ухэр uxer), final z rhotacized into r, though early Mongolic initial *h- still disputative (Pelliot, 1944; Clauson, 1962: 208; Rozycki, 1994; Doerfer, 1996).
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century, CHT ЖШЛ = JUR *kijali / *kijari "huqin (a Chinese bowed string instrument)" might have the same root as kikili, (see below). JUR *kijali / *kijari replaced by MAN ongyocon "huqin (a Chinese bowed string instrument)" < WMO ongyuca "vessel, boat, ship, receptacle for water or fodder for livestock, trough" during the Oing (Gu-gong bo-wu-yuan, 1957: 722; Lessing et al., 1973: 613; Kane, 1989: 262).
3) Etymology: Unknown, though possibly Turkic origin; < CTU *ekki:-qil "two strings" (CTU *ekki "two" (Clauson, 1972: 100-101) + CTU *qil "(horse) hair, string" (Ibid.: 614)) were proposed by some scholars (Picken, 1975: 324; Suzukei, 1989; 18). Ervand V. Sevortyan supposed that *iqla- "hard to breath," and on that basis CHG iq-liy1 "fiddle" < "hart to breath" = "creaking" = "sound of fiddle" ? (Etimologicheskii slovar' ... , 1974: 650; Tatarintsev, 2000: 337). If we accept Sevortyan's account, we have to suppose an unknown noun or adjective *iq "suffocation" (?), which required the denominal suffix -l'iy. Gerard Clauson assumed that *'iyla- "to weep," which can be identical with Sevortyan's *iqla-, is not a basic word for Turkic, although it is common in most Turkic languages (Clauson, 1972: 85). However, *'iy "weeping, sobbing," the base of *iyla-, is not common among Turkic
languages, and the use is restricted to Northeastern (Siberian Turkic) languages and Kyrgys (Clauson, 1972: 75). Therefore, I have to conclude Sevortyan's idea is quite difficult to accept.
4) Etymological data:
CHG (1402-1405 or earlier) iqliq "two-stringed spike fiddle"
(Fig. 13; Ramstedt, 1935: 206; Farmer, 1976: 100; Farmer, 1986: 76; Bardakgi, 2008: 100-101, 246-247).
OTM (17th century) iqliq "small viol of three strings" (Farmer, 1986: 674-675).
WOI (19th century) yekeli (Pozdneev, 1880: 20, 165; Krueger, 1978-1984, 3: 709).
OIR ikkil, etc. "a bowed two-stringed instrument" (Fig. 14; Kara, 1958: 145; Pegg, 2001: 303).
S-ALT (Altai-kizhi dialect) икили ikili "a bowed two stringed ethnic instrument" (Fig. 15; Baskakov, Toshchakova,
Fig. 15. Ikili of Southern- 1947: 63).
Akaiandnx°fKhakas. S-ALT (Teleut dialect) ikkili (Ramstedt, 1935: 206).
Рис. 15. Икили из Южного
Алтая и ыых из Хакасии KHA ЫЫХ llX "a bowed two stringed instrument of
Fig. 14. Ikkili etc. among
Western Mongolians. Рис. 14. Иккили восточных монголов.
1 Turkic denominal suffix -lIg (-l'iy, -lig, -luy, or -lüg) (Clauson, 1972: xli).
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the Khakas" (Fig. 15; Vertkov et al., 1975: 185, 227, fig 710; Butanaev, 1999: 232; Tatarintsev, 2000: 337-338; Subrakov, 2006: 1052).
KHA (Khoibal dialect) iix, ööx (Castrén, 1857: 82, 86; Ramstedt, 1935: 206; Tatarintsev, 2000: 337-338). SHO: n.d. 5) See also:
JUR (possibly first half of 16th century) CHT M&ifi qi-zha-li = *kijali / *kijari "huqin (a Chinese bowed string instrument)" (Kane, 1989: 262).
WMO (early as in 1717) kikili "a bowed string instrument" (ÖMMK, 1977: 360; Kowalewski, 1844-1849: 2545).
IMO xigili [xil ~ xi:l] "a horse-head fiddle, a bowed string instrument" (NMDMY, 1999: 628).
TUR lklik / lkiigi / lkiiga "a kind of three-stringed violin used in classical music" (Alkim et al., 1994: 500).
Fig. 16. Soor of Tuva. Рис. 16. Шоор из Тувы.
4.2.3 moop soor "an end-blown flute" (Fig. 16; Katanov, 1903: 134, 1356; Vertkov et al., 1975: 186, 227, fig 714; Suzukei, 1989: 75; Todoriki, 2012: 27-28).
1) Variation: n. d.
2) History: Similar end-blown flutes made from a bird's ulna were discovered near the Kitoi river, Irkutsk Oblast (dated 4-3,000 BC) (Fig. 17; Karomatov et al., 1987: 44-45). Their connection
to the shoor is, however, difficult to prove.
The earliest linguistic report can be found in one of the oldest Chinese-Mongolian vocabularies (S^ifln Zhi-yuan yi-yu) in 1280, as CHT = *coYur "flute" (Cf. footnote 1 (p. 164); Ishida 1973: 93, 100; Zhi-chi-zi et al., 1974: 26). Then, the Eastern Mediterranean world of the Mongol era, the Rasulid1 Hexaglot, a six-language glossary of Arabic, Persian, Greek, Armenian, Turkic (close to Oypchak language), and Mongolic, in Arabic transliteration, which was compiled by or prepared for the sixth Rasulid king of Yemen (reigned 1363-1377) (Golden, 2000: 23). It equated OYP tutuk "pipe" and MON cuwur "a kind of reed fife" (Ibid.: 311). Later, famous Mongolian chronicle WMO Altan Tobci "the Golden Summary" (anonymous, 17th century) recorded WMO coyur "trumpet" (Bawden, 1955: 60, 145); also WMO Erdeni-yin Tobci "the Precious Summary" by Sayang Secen, completed in 1662
Fig. 17. End-blown flutes from Kitoi river (4-3,000 BC). Рис. 17. Продольные флейты из реки Китой (4-3 тыс. до н. э.).
1 Rasulid dynasty: ARA J^j yi Banu Rasul "the sons of prophet," ruled Yemen from 13th to 15th centu-
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(Ssanang Ssetsen, Go, 1940: 1; Morikawa, 2008: 12), described WMO coyur as "a flute resembling CHI hu-jia1" (Ssanang Ssetsen, Go, 1940: 25 (CHI); Morikawa, 2008: 309). Then to circa-Altai region, the Pictorial Account CHT (in 1756-1782) chuo-er = WOI *cur / WMO *cuyur "resembling CHI H xiao2 a flute made of bamboo, basically with four finger holes" (Fu et al., 1970 5(40): 4).
On the other hand, Ewliya Chelebi's Siyahat nama "the Travel Book" (17th century) mentions OTM cuyur as a plucking instrument "Janissaries' five-stringed pandore" (Farmer, 1986: 669-670). This meant the word cuur could refer not only to the flute, but also to an "arbitrary musical instrument," sometimes. Cf. Inner Mongolian usage IMO cuyur "1) end-blown flute, 2) horse-head fiddle, 3) bass tone" (NMDMY, 1999: 1285).
3) Etymology: Mongolic
/ *coyuru-ki-yur
instrument3."
origin; "coyuru-yur / *coyuru-quyur "a pierced
4) Etymological data:
WOI cur "pipe, reed pipe, flute" (Krueger, 19781984, 3: 651).
OIR (Kalmyk dialect) cur / цур cur "pipe, reed pipe" (Fig. 18; Ramstedt, 1935: 435; Kalmytsko-russkii slovar', 1977: 641).
S-ALT (historical; Teleut dialect) чо^ор coyor "pipe, reed pipe" (Radloff, 1893-1911, 3: 2014; Ramstedt, 1935: 435) / чоор coor "pipe" (Verbitskii, 1884: 432).
S-ALT (historical; Altai-kizhi dialect) чокур coqur (Radloff, 1893-1911, 3: 2007; Ramstedt, 1935: 435; Vertkov et al., 1975: 183, 226, fig 700).
S-ALT (Altai-kizhi dialect) шоор soor "pipe" (Fig. 18; Baskakov, Toshchakova, 1947: 186).
N-ALT (Kuu-kizhi dialect) шоор soor ~ шор sor "(musical instrument) pipe" (Baskakov, 1985: 226).
N-ALT (Kumandy dialect) шоор soor "pipe" (Kumandinsko-russkii slovar', 1995: 141).
N-ALT (Tuba dialect) шоор soor "pipe" (Baskakov, 1966: 167).
KHA: n.d.
Fig. 18. Cur among Western Mongolians (left) and soor of Southern Altai (right). Рис. 18. Цур западных монголов (слева) и шоор из Южного Алтая (справа).
1 Cf. ZYY, 1985: 158-159.
2 Cf. ZYY, 1985: 428.
3*coyuru-: Cf. WMO coyuru- "to be pierced, become manifest, burst open" (Lessing et al., 1973: 195). Mongolic suffix -gUr, see footnote 1 (p. 164).
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SHO: n.d.
5) See also:
BUR суур suur "a pipe with three tone-holes" (Cheremisov, 1973: 397; Dondokova, 2003: 133).
MON coyur / cuyur "a kind of reed pipe" (Lessing et al., 1973: 195, 206).
KYR чоор coor "a pipe, reed pipe (made of a hollow stem)" (Iudakhin, 1965: 867).
S-ALT (Teleut dialect) сыбыск,ы sibisqi "pipe" (Riumina-Syrkasheva, Kuchiga-sheva, 1995: 77; Riumina-Syrkasheva, Riumin, 2002: 50).
KHA сьныртос s'iy'irtos "whistle, pipe" (Baskakov, Inkizhekova-Grekul, 1953: 206; Russko-khakasskii slovar', 1961: 203); хобрах xobrax "pipe" (Baskakov, Inkizhekova-Grekul, 1953: 283); хобырах xobirax "pipe" (Russko-khakasskii slovar', 1961: 203).
4.2.4 кай kay (obsolete) "throat-singing" (Katanov, 1903: 132, 432, 1126; Todoriki, 2012: 13-14, 46-47).
1) Variation: n.d.
2) History: The only report from Tuva, and one of the earliest among the correspondent designations for the circa-Altai throat-singing, was made by Nikolai F. Katanov during his research travel in 1889, TUV кай kay (obsolete) "throat-singing" (Katanov, 1903: 132, 432, 1126; Tatarintsev, 1998: 60); кайла- kayla- "to sing in throaty voice" (Katanov, 1903: 432, 1127; Tatarintsev, 1998: 60). The verb stem qayla- was widely reported to refer to the circa-Altai throat-singing and storytelling with deep guttural voice, among S-ALT (Altai-kizhi, Teleut, Telengit), N-ALT (Kuu-kizhi), SHO, KHA (Sagai) until the end of 19th century (Verbitskii, 1884: 116; Radloff, 1893-1911, 2: 27).
Oay among Shors; According to Leonid P. Potapov, creating and passing on the Shor heroic epic was not performed by anyone among the Shors, but restricted to sub-ethnic groups (S-ALT sook "bone") - only to Aba, Cheley, Chediber, and Kalar. Those are the sooks who originated from the Teleut people of Southern Altaian (Kimeev, 1989: 123; Tatarintsev, 1998: 18, 60).
Oay could have been the earlier designation for throat-singing (compare with xoomey terminology).
3) Etymology: Mongolic origin; WMO (nomen futuri1) qayilaqu "wail, bawl, cry out," and the verb stem qayila- "to wail, bawl, cry out." The word is stable in most of Mongolic languages and traceable back in 13th century, the Secret History of Mongols
1 The Mongolian suffix -qu/-kü attaches verb stems to make a word express an action which will take place in the future or an action of any time other than future. This form is used as subject, object, attribute, and predicate (Poppe, 1954: 94). The word also functions as a substantive.
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(Rachewiltz, 1972: 23, 32, 65, 72, 93, 123). Tatarintsev assumed this as proof of its Turkic origin (Tatarintsev, 1998: 22, 63), though its usage among Turkic languages is quite limited, and the meaning varies (see below). Also, the word is undetectable in the dictionary of Turkic etymology (Clauson, 1972). The nomen futuri WMO qayilaqu have possibly two different origins1; 1) verb stem WMO qayila- "to wail, bawl, cry out," and 2) verb stem WMO qayil- "to thaw, fuse, melt" (Lessing et al., 1973: 912). Overviewing the circa-Altai languages, the former verb stem qayila- (kayla-, or xayla-) can be rigid. However, the usage of qayila- for "to recite epic performance using deep guttural voice" (Pegg, 1992: 47; Pegg, 2001: 13, 57) is quite local mainly in the circaAltai region, and undetectable in available Mongolian dictionaries including Oirat dictionaries2.
Qayilaqu--like deep guttural voice is the basic vocalization to produce MON хеемий xoomiy (See 4.2.5) -like throat-singing (Pegg, 1992: 47). In west Mongolia, the antonym WMO qayilaqu / MON хайлах xaylax (Radio France, 1993: track # 22; Bawden, 1997: 418) is WMO ayalaqu / MON аялах ayalax "sing in natural voice" (Radio France, 1993: track # 21; Bawden, 1997: 33).
4) Etymological data:
WOI xayila-xu "weep, cry" / xayil(a)-xu "thaw, melt" (Krueger, 1978-1984, 2: 256).
OIR (Kalmyk dialect) хээл-х xaal-x "1) weep, cry, 2) thaw, melt" (Ramstedt, 1935: 179; Kalmytsko-russkii slovar', 1977: 586).
S-ALT (Teleut dialect) кдй qay "throat-singing"; кдйла- qayla- "to sing"; кдйчы qayci "storyteller" (Riumina-Syrkasheva, Kuchigasheva, 1995: 33-34).
S-ALT (Altai-kizhi dialect) кай kay "throat-singing"; кайла- kayla- "to sing (in throaty voice), to recite tales"; кайчы kayci "bard, singer of heroic poem with topsuur accompaniment" (Baskakov, Toshchakova, 1947: 67-68).
N-ALT (Kuu-Kizhi dialect) кай kay "double-voiced song"; кайла- kayla- "to grumble, to snore, to recite tales in throaty sound"; кайчы kay "a special kind of singers of epic tales who perform in two voices" (Baskakov, 1985: 155).
N-ALT (Kumandy dialect) кайлыйарга kayliyarga "to sing in throaty voice (throat-singing)"; кайчы kayci "bard, singer" (Kumandinsko-russkii slovar', 1995: 17).
KHA хай xay "throat-singing"; хайла- xayla- "to do throat-singing, to intone a tale"; хай^ы xayji "storyteller, singer (performing heroic tales to the accompaniment of catxan-zither or xomis-lute)" (Baskakov, Inkizhekova-Grekul, 1953: 265, 267).
SHO к,ай qay "a throat-singing bard"; кдйла- qayla- "to do throat-singing"; цайчы qayci "bard" (Kurpeshko-Tannagasheva, Apon'kin, 1993: 21).
1 The distinguishability of both is lower in Oirat language (See "Etymological data").
2 Except Bawden, 1997 (p. 418), which is well following west Mongolian terms.
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5) See also:
CHU хайла- xayl-a- "to palter, joke" (Chuvashsko-russkii slovar', 1985: 533).
CHU хайла-в xayla-v "composition, impromptu song" < NOG ?, KAZ ?, KYR ? (Akhmet'ianov, 1981: 111; Tatarintsev, 1998: 20-22, 61-63).
STA кдйла-у qayla-u "throat-singing" < NOG ?, KAZ ?, KYR ? (Akhmet'ianov, 1981: 111; Tatarintsev, 1998: 20-22, 61-63).
STA (Tobolsk dialect, Tyumen Oblast) кдйла- qayla- "to grumble, sing a song to oneself, sing without words" (Tumasheva, 1992: 114).
KYR кайла- kayla- "to purr a song, sing for oneself, hum (usually in a foreign language)" (Iudakhin, 1965: 320).
WMO qayila-qu "weep, cry" (Lessing et al., 1973: 912).
4.2.5 хеемей xoomey "a generic term for Tuvan throat-singing, also one of the styles which produces sound without touching the upper palate with the tongue" (Tuvinsko-russkii slovar', 1968: 491; Sakakibara et al., 2001; Todoriki, 2012: 46-47, 53-54) / хеемейле- xoomeyle- "to perform khoomei" (Tuvinsko-russkii slovar', 1968: 491).
1) Variation: n.d.
2) History: The terms below are found in the early reports referring to Tuvan throat-singing resembling xoomey. The first report was made by Ostrovskikh in 1897; xomiler "throat (singing), using guttural voice and producing melody with tone of flute" (Ostrovskikh, 1927: 89-90). Presumably in the same period, Yakovlev: kumayler "throat singing: the master inhaled deeply and when it started, strange rumbling wheeze came out of the depth of his entrails, then it continued until the air was exhausted" (Yakovlev, 1900: 114). From early 20th century by Grumm-Grzhimilo in 1903: kumayler "song without words" (Grumm-Grzhimailo, 1914-1930, 3(1): 107-108). Then, Anokhin in 1910; kuveyler1 "to buzz; simple sound including tone of flute" (Myagkov, 1931; Anokhin, 2005: 57).
Those "xomiler," "kumayler," "kuveyler" are seemingly incorrect as a Tuvan word, because it ruins the vowel harmony. So most of the scholars are concluded this might be a Russian corruption of xoomeyleer "singing xoomey" (Kyrgys, 2002: 12; Tatarintsev, 1998: 19, 61). Basically I accept this idea. However, I notice here my interview with a Khakas lady (Khoibal group) (b. 1921), who was married to a Tuvan and had been living in Tuva quite long. She referred to Tuvan throat singing as кевейлээр koveyleer (interviewed in August 2004). I think it is easy for Tuvans to create a "pseudo-etymology" with TUV кевей kovey "many" + -лэ-эр -le-er "(suffix to make denominal verb of present/future, also functioning as verbal noun)," though in reality it must have appeared the other way.
1 Actually, Anokhin described "kuveyler" as one of the three styles of Tuvan throat singing. Here is the
rest of two styles; kargralap "to wheeze; two tones are stable though both are separated one octave" (Cf.
4.2.6); sygyrtyp "to whistle; the high tone of flute is clearly detectable" (Cf. 4.2.8).
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Presumably, it was Aksyonov who established the collective name xoomey for Tuvan throat-singing (Aksenov, 1964: 11), though, the battle cry was very weak. Sev'yan I. Vainshtein repeated Aksyonov's statement in more detail: "xoomey as collective designation was the phenomenon only of south Tuva, and was just a name of local designation for one of the styles (borbaqnadir-style)" in 1980 (Aksenov, 1964: 59; Vainshtein, 1980: 151-152).
On the other hand, it is quite difficult to trace back Mongolian word MON xqqmmm xoomiy, as a name for Mongolian throat-singing. It can only traceable to 1964, as early as Aksyonov, from documentations (Vargyas, 1968: 71-72; Tran, Guillou, 1980: 162). Carole Pegg introduced Togon Chuluun (b. 1890s) demonstrated xoomiy in 1930 as a "folk art," according to information from a Western Mongolian (b. 1923) (Pegg, 1992: 41).
3) Etymology: WMO kogemey "1) pharynx, throat, 2) fur on throat or belly of an animal, dewlap of bovines" (Lessing et al., 1973: 479). The usage of this word for throat-singing is a local phenomenon, and only recent dictionaries recognize it. We have to note again that the etymology of this word and the origin of throat-singing is independent.
4) Etymological data:
OIR (Kalmyk dialect) KeeMa kooma "1) pharynx, nasopharynx, 2) fur (abdominal skin)" (Kalmytsko-russkii slovar', 1977: 317).
WMO kogemey "1) pharynx, throat, 2) fur on throat or belly of an animal, dewlap of bovines" (Kowalewski, 1844-1849: 2626; Lessing et al., 1973: 479).
MON xeeMMM xoomiy "1) back of the mouth, pharynx, 2) a type of double voice production or overtone singing, 3) strip of fur along the belly of an animal" (Bawden, 1997: 461).
4.2.6 Kaprbipaa kargiraa "a kind of type of throat-singing, very low resister of gargling tone, using false vocal chords" (Tuvinsko-russkii slovar', 1968: 229; Sakakibara et al., 2001; Todoriki, 2012: 14-15, 46-47) / Kaprwpaa^a- kargraala- "to perform kargyraa" (Tuvinsko-russkii slovar', 1968: 229).
1) Variation: n.d.
2) History: The earliest account appears in Anokhin, 1910 as kargralap (possibly Kaprbipaa.ran kargraalap) "to wheeze; two tones are stable though both are separated one octave" (Anokhin, 2005: 54; footnote 1 (p. 172)). To trace back Mongolian designation is difficult, however, we can see it at least in 1980 xarkiraa (Gunji, 1980: 141). Pegg introduced one of the styles called xarxiraa, which produces a very low fundamental tone (and the variation xargaraa, etc.) in Western Mongolia (Pegg, 2001: 62-63), which needs further study (Ibid.: 302). According to Pegg, the designation seems quite unstable in Western Mongolia. This identical name and the singing style can also be found in Southern Altai.
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An identical vocalization, though presumably of a different origin, can be found in chuurin-duu IMO cuyur-yin dayuu "song of bass-tone (Cf. 4.2.3)" or khoolaiin chuur IMO qoyolai-yin cuyur "throat bass-tone" among Abaga Mongols, Xilin-Gol League, Inner Mongolia. The ensemble style is a mainly vocal recitation urtyn duu IMO ortu-yin dayuu "long song," with background chorus by kargiraa-type vocalization1 (Pegg, 2001: xvi, CD track # 10). It was roughly 1930 when the ensemble was firstly recorded on a phonograph, a "portable recording apparatus" (Haslund-Christensen et al., 1943: pl. 1) by Haslund-Christensen. This tradition is exclusive to Abaga Mongols; it arose during the Oing as Abaya "uncle" or Abayanar "uncles," descendants of Chinggis Khan's brothers.
3) Etymology: Mongolic origin; WOI xarkira "a cry, shout" (Krueger, 1978-1984, 2: 267). Possibly of Western Mongolic origin2.
4) Etymological data:
WOI xarkira "a cry, shout" (Krueger, 1978-1984, 2: 267); хэркерехе xarkerexe "roars, screams (of a camel)" (Todaeva, 2001: 397).
OIR (Kalmyk dialect) xarkrxv / xarkrxv "to crash, creak" (Ramstedt, 1935: 169); хэркрх xarkrx "roar, scream"; хэркрэн xarkran "roar" (Kalmytsko-russkii slovar', 1977: 589).
S-ALT (Altai-kizhi dialect) каргырла- kargirla-"to wheeze; to sing a two-sound melody, both tones of which are to be separated by an octave, the first of the sounds being performed by the throat, and the other by the lips simultaneously" (Baskakov, Toshchakova, 1947: 74).
5) See also:
TUV каргыра- kargira- "to wheeze, boil" (Tuvinsko-russkii slovar', 1968: 229).
Supplemental information:
4.2.7 бызаанчы bizaanci "four-stringed spike fiddle" (Fig. 19; Vertkov et al., 1975: 187, 227, fig Fig.. 19. Bizaanci ofTuva. 717-718; Suzukei, 1989: 31-36; Todoriki, 2012:
Рис. 19. Бызаанчы из Тувы. 51-53).
1 This ensemble supported the claiming as "Chinese throat-singing" to UNESCO (Ex. Stokes, 2015).
2 In written Mongolian, one only can find a similar word WMO qarkir-a "gray crane, Grus virgo, G. grus" (Lessing et al., 1973: 940). In Bawen 1997 none are to be found. It is difficult to prove the relevance between the two words. Instead, Mongolian generally designates MON Toropyy togoruu / WMO toYuruu for cranes.
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1) Variation: 6braaH3a biyanza (Tozhu dialect) (Vainshtein, 1961: 153) / 6biH3aH-3a biyazanza (Suzukei, 1989: 31).
2) History: The four-stringed spike fiddle itself suggested east Mongolian origin by its spread (Pegg, 2001: 12-14). The appellation: MON xyy^np xuucir (Lessing et al., 1973: 992) / BUR xymap xusar (Cheremisov, 1973: 609; Dondokova, 2003: 133) < CHI hu-qin "a Chinese fiddle of foreign origin" (ZYY, 1985: 159; Balzhinnyam, 2011: 40, 66). Also, IMO xyyp xuur (NMDMY, 1999: 677) / MON gepBeH нмxтэм xyyp dorvon cixtey xuur "xuur-instrument with four pegs" / MON gepBeH yTacr xyyp dorvon utast xuur "xuur-instrument with four strings," etc. However, as in the specificity of Tuvan fiddle playing style, the term byzaanchy is also quite unique. Ethnomusicologist Valentina Y. Suzukei only suggested the possibility of a loanword (Suzukei, 1989: 31). Some local Tuvans understand the false etymology with bizaa "calf" + (-n- ?) + -ci "(suffix to make denominal substantives)," which metaphorically compared the lowing calf with the sound of this instrument. The evidence is, however, scanty: we can find only WOI bisanza "(precise meaning unknown - a name of a musical instrument)" in a fragment of Oirat folk literature reported by Aleksei Pozdneev in the 19th century (see below). On the other hand, the Pictorial Account (1756-1782) tells us there was a four-stringed spike fiddle called CHT pi-pa hu-er = WMO *biba-quyur "a spike fiddle with four-strings of horse hair, with the bow hairs inserted between the strings, cylinder shaped body and the surface side covered with python skin, identical to Chinese Htl si-hu1." As I will discuss below, if we assume sanza = quyur "(arbitrary) musical instrument," bisanza can be identical with, or direct decendant of *biba-quyur. The *biba-sanza can well explain a Tuvan variety of the name byzaanchy, biya-zanza.
The earliest account from Tuva was made by Yakovlev as follows: Puzanche "four-stringed spike fiddle, and the bow hairs inserted between the strings" (Yakovlev, 1900: 115).
As far as I know, the four-stringed fiddle is not known in the circa-Altai region, except Tuva.
3) Etymology: Mongolic, Tibetic, Chinese and/or Sanskrit origin ?; WOI bisanza "unknown musical instrument" (Pozdneev, 1880: 19, 165) < *bi-sanza "musical instrument for dance" (WOI bi "dance" + *sanza "three-stringed lute" (Ramstedt, 1935: 47; Krueger, 1978-1984, 2: 343) / WMO sangza "a musical instrument with three strings plucked with the fingers" (Lessing et al., 1973: 752) < CHI Mi xian-zi = CHI H M san-xian "three-stringed Chinese lute" (ZYY, 1985: 332, 423; Balzhinnyam, 2011: 40)) / *biba-sanza "instrument of biba" (WMO (early as in 1717) biba "chordophone such as violin, harp, etc., foreign origin" (Kowalewski, 1844-1849: 1132; OMMK, 1977: 245) < TIB pi-wang "Tibetan small spike fiddle of two or four strings; guitar" (Das et al., 1902: 782; Helffer, 1984 3: 130) < CHI §§ pi-pa "a Chinese plucking instrument with originally four or five strings" (ZYY, 1985: 291-292) / SSK vina "the
1 Cf. ZYY, 1985: 367-368.
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vina or Indian lute" (Monier-Williams, 1899: 1005; Das et al., 1902: 782) + *sanza "a three-stringed lute").
4) Etymological data:
4.2.8 cbirbiT s'igit "one of the styles of Tuvan throat-singing which produces sound by touching the upper palate with the tongue, making shrill whistle-like sound" (Tuvinsko-russkii slovar', 1968: 396; Sakakibara et al., 2001; Todoriki, 2012: 28) / cbirbipT- sigirt-"to give a whistle, to perform sygyt" (Tuvinsko-russkii slovar', 1968: 396).
1) Variation: n.d.
2) History: The earliest account was made by Anokhin in 1910 as sygyrtyp (possibly cbirbipTbin sigirtip) "to whistle; the high tone of flute is clearly detectable" (Anokhin, 2005: 54; footnote 1 (p. 172)). An Oirat equivalent is undetectable. Identical designation and the singing style can only be found in Southern Altai.
3) Etymology: Northeastern Turkic origin; < CTU *sikir- "to whisle" (Clauson, 1972: 815). And possibly CTU *sigita:- "to weep, lament" (Ibid.: 807) / CTU *sigit "weeping, lamentation" (Ibid.: 806), may have had some connection. Both CTU *sikir-"to whistle" and CTU *s'igita:- "to weep" are not common among Turkic languages, and the use restricted in Northeastern (Siberian Turkic). Tuvan language doesn't possess the latter, and bima- igla- "to cry," instead.
4) Etymological data:
TUV cbirbip- sigir- "to whistle" (Tuvinsko-russkii slovar', 1968: 395).
S-ALT (Altai-kizhi dialect) CbirbipTbin sigirtip "1) to give a whistle, 2) to sing two-tone melody, one of the sounds came from throat is sustained, and the other, performed by lips, is whistling tone, reminding the sound of flute" / cbirbipTy sigirtu "whistle, a special style of two-voiced singing" / cwrwpT sigirt "whistling" / CbirbipT- sigirt- "1) to give a whistle, 2) to sing two-tone melody, where one of the sounds came from throat is sustained, and the other, performed by lips, is a whistling tone, like the sound of flute" / Cbirbip- sigir- "to whistle" (Baskakov, Toshchakova, 1947: 135).
KHA cbiFbip- s'iy'ir- "to whistle" (Baskakov & Inkizhekova-Grekul 1953: 206) / CbiFbipTOC siyirtos "whistle, pipe" (Baskakov, Inkizhekova-Grekul, 1953: 206).
SHO CbiFbip- s'iyir- "to whistle" (Kurpeshko-Tannagasheva, Apon'kin, 1993: 50).
5) See also:
KHA cbibiT s'ii't = cbixTaF s'ixtay "cry, wailing" / cbixbiTa- sixta- "to cry bitterly, sob, lament" (Baskakov, Inkizhekova-Grekul, 1953: 210).
SHO CbibiT siit "cry, wailing" / CMK,Ta- siqta- "to cry" (Kurpeshko-Tannagasheva, Apon'kin, 1993: 50, 51).
See above.
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4.3 Appendix: Bashqort throat-singing
e:^Y oôlaU [oôlaw] "The art of two-voiced singing without words by one singer: the singer makes a throat sound with a lower ostinato, against the background of which he sings Bashqort melodies in a voice in higher register." (Bashkirsko-russkii slovar', 1958: 422).
1) Variation: eзлэY ozlaU (Bashkirsko-russkii slovar', 1996: 480).
2) History: This term is better known as узляу "uzlyau," Russian corruption of the original Bashqort spelling for throat-singing (Bashkirsko-russkii slovar', 1958: 422). This voiced dental fricative [ô] is pronounced "th" as in English father [fa:ô^| (Poppe, 1964: 9). Under the unfluence of Russian or some other Bashqort dialects, few Bashqort words started oz-, not oô-, as only can be found in recent Bashqort dictionaries (Ex. Bashkirsko-russkii slovar', 1996: 480), i. e., recent Bashqort spelling 03^y ozlau can be also due to Russification.
Bashqort throat-singing has one of the earliest, and most detailed accounts of the art of vocalization, so called overtone-singing or throat-singing etc. Despite that, it is not obvious that the Bashqort preserved a kind of throat-singing up to 19th century (see below). The earliest report was made by Manuel Garcia (Cf. 3.2);
Aujourd'hui, chez les Baskirs, plusieurs individus possèdent l'étonnante faculté de produire à la fois deux parties parfaitement distinctes: une pédale et une mélodie aigue. Le chanteur commence par une longue note qu'il attaque sur un son tres rauque et fort élevé; il baisse ensuite le son en le trainant jusqu'à la note qui lui sert de pédale et qu'il n'abandonne plus. ••• Aux différentes reprises de l'air, la pédale varie entre la tonique et la dominante.
"Today, among Bashqorts, many people have the amazing ability to produce two quite distinct parts at the same time: a continuous drone (pedal) with sharp melody. The singer begins with a long note that attacks on a very raucous and very high, then he lowers the sound by dragging it to the note that serves as pedal and that it no longer drops. ••• At different times of the melody, the pedal varies between tonic and dominant." (Garcia, 1847: 13).
Garcia also mentioned that this kind of example is very frequently encountered among the peasants who drive horses in St. Petersburg (Ibid.: 13). He also added a preliminary, though quite interesting comment on the voice mechanics of how to produce two notes simultaneously (Ibid.: 13-14; Updated acoustic research activity cf. Levin, Edgerton 1999; Sakakibara et al., 2001).
Lev N. Lebedinskii mentioned that Vladimir I. Dal' and Sergei G. Rybakov also reported Bashqort throat-singing in 19th century (Lebedinskii, 1965: 82-85). This is from Rybakov's report in June 1894:
Башкир исполнял горлом один и тот же тон довольно дикого, гнусящего характера; на фоне этого тона он наигрывал, а помощью маленького язы-
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ка (по его словам) башкирския мелодии; звуки баульчика, игрушечного органчика; надобно было соблюдать полнейшую тишину, чтобы слышать эту своеобразную, дикую, но не лишению приятности музыку; выходило, что один и тот же человеке исполнял зараз два тонна: горлом и язычком. Башкир не только приятно наигрывал эти своеобразные звуки, но и артистически исполнял их: он обнаруживал настоящее искусство.
"the Bashqort made the same tone of rather wild, nasal character, the sound that came from his throat; Against the background of his tone, he performed, and accompanied with a palatine uvula (in his own words), Bashqort melodies; a sound like the one made by a baulcik, toy organ; It was necessary to observe absolute silence in order to hear this music, peculiar, wild, but not without pleasure; it appeared that the same person was performing two tone at one time: with the throat and tongue. The Bashqort not only made these peculiar sounds which sounded quite pleasant, but also artistically performed them, proving himself a real man of art." (Rybakov, 1897: 271).
This description gave us an impression of something closer to circa-Altai throat-singing manner, deep guttural voice, not the odlati style of today (Paradox, 1993: track # 15-19, 20, 22, 24, 26, 28).
Bashqort-Oirat relations began before early 17th century (Russko-mongol'skie otnosheniia ... , 1959: 102-103), as proved by the migration of some ethnic groups of the Oirats (Torguud and Dorbod) in 1616 from Ztitingar (Dzungar) to the lower Volga region (Menges, 1995: 38-39). However, the connection between Bashqort throat-singing and circa-Altai throat-singing is unclear. At least, no linguistic data is supportive of that (Fig. 20).
Early designation for Bashqort throat-singing is unknown. According to Lebedinskii, it was "uzlyau" in 1939, when he visited the mountainous region of Bashqortostan. In fact, when he was there, the heritage had already died out, and an old man called Saifetdin Yulmukhametov (b. 1866) had been "recreating" it on his own since he was
language (gray: Mongolic / black: Turkic)
Oirat Mongolian
Kalmyk
Tuvan
South Altaian rcNorthth Altaian
Ci Khakasian
Shor < South Altaian
Bashqort
throat-singing plucking inst.
xäälexe / xöömiy tovsuur
xäälx tovsur
(kay) xöömey dospuluur
kay topsuur
kay topsuur / topsubar
xay topcil
kay qomus
ödläü qumid / qubid / dumbira
bow inst.
end-blown flute
ikil / ikkil cuur
ikel cuur
igl / egil soor
ikili soor
soor
siyirtos / xobCi)rax
quray / hibidyi
< Etymology for throat-singing>
WOI xayilaxu: xayila- "to weep, cry" (Muniev 1977: 586; Krueger 1978-1984 2: 256) < WMO qayila- "to weep, cry" (Lessing et al. 1973: 912)
BAS odlau: < BAS дв- "to tear, rip, break off, tear off, tear, break, interrupt, break up" (Akhmerov 1958: 422; Poppe 1964: 47; Uraksin 1996: 480) < CTU uz- "to tear" (Clauson 1972: 279-280)
Fig. 20. Circa-Altai and Bashqort music terminology. Рис. 20. Среднеалтайская и башкирская музыкальная терминология.
НОВЫЕ ИССЛЕДОВАНИЯ ТУВЫ W THE NEW RESEARCH OF TUVA
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14 (Lebedinskii, 1965: 86). An earlier dictionary by Vasilii V. Katarinskii (Bashkirsko-russkii slovar', 1899) does not have this word. If we assume odlau was the designation which can be traced back to the 19th century, then it was of a totally different origin from circa-Altai throat-singing, *qayila-, etymologically.
3) Etymology: Turkic origin; *od-la-u "teared (voice)": e?- od- (o?oy odou) "to tear off, cease, break off, snatch, pluck" (Bashkirsko-russkii slovar', 1958: 423) + -la-"(suffix making passive verb stems)" + -u "(suffix of verbal nouns of action, "the doing")" (Poppe, 1964: 47, 69). The Bashqort verb stem od- can be traced back to common Turkic *uz- "to tear, to pull" (Clauson, 1792: 279-230, 287). Tatarintsev's hypothesis presuming the unknown common Turkic verbal stem *oz-~*os- "to moan, howl" (Tatarintsev, 1998: 35, 74) seems implausible. Tuvan correspondence CTU *uz-is yc- us- "to tear, to pull."
5. Conclusion
л*
L \
Kalmyk
Epic recitation with deep guttural voice
Circa-Altai throat-singing
I Russian Fed. I Mongolia I I Xinjiang, PRC_
> o.
As we can see from what was explained above, circa-Altai region tends to share musical instruments, and their names, as well as the art of throat-singing, among multiple ethnic groups of the region. It was no coincidence, and there are historical reasons for this social/cultural inclusion. Also, there we can find a reduction tendency on the edges of the region1 (Fig. 20), in this case in Khakases and Shors. To explain this, I would like to propose collectively the circa-Altai Kulturkreis (Fig. 20, 21). Furthermore, I would like to
Northern Xinjiang
Fig. 21. Circa-Altai throat-singing. Рис. 21. Среднеалтайский культурный круг горлового пения.
1 (Pegg, 1992: 34) mentioned that main population in Chandman' sum, which claimed birth place of xoomiy in Mongolia, is "Western Khakha", not an Oirat sub-ethnic group. I believe the situation like in Chandman' sum can be explained by them also being "on the edge."
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briefly address the issue below.
Epic singers in deep guttural voice seem to have been widespread among the bards of the Central Asian Turkic peoples, and also some of the neighboring non-Turkic singers; Turkmenistan (Archives Internationales de Musique Populaire, 1991; Smithsonian Folkways Recordings, 1994; INEDIT, 1989: track # 5, 6; Pegg, 2001: 14), Uzbekistan (Oongrad Uzbeks: Karakalpakstan, Surkhandarya, Oashqandarya) (Slobin, 1977: 35; Levin, 1996: 154, 186, 301; Pegg, 2001: 14; Leotar, Ourbanov, 2008: track # 1, 3, 5), Kazakhstan (INEDIT, 1989: track # 3, 4), Tajikistan (INEDIT, 2009: track # 4), Turkey (Smithsonian Folkways Recordings, 1993: track # 16, 17), Pakistan (Balochstan) (Ex. Balochi Nur ... , 2015), and even Greece (Ex. Frankosyriani ... , 2015). The Tajik variation of TUR destan1, Koroglu2, is reported to be recited in coarse throaty voice (INEDIT 2009: track # 4; Wilks 2001: 313), and is actually not only restricted to the Tajik version, but also known among the Turkmens (Smithsonian Folkways Recordings, 1994), etc. If we assume this, we can also add the region of Armenia, Georgia, Iran, and Afghanistan (Cf. Traditional Crossroads, 2003, disc 1: track # 5; disc 2: track # 6, 12).
Considering the Oirat connection with Western Asia, later Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, etc., this epic tradition has full authenticity for circa-Altai guttural recitation, and throat-singing tradition. I believe that circa-Altai music emerged3 when the Oirats actively continued a military push into Western Asia, presumably after 17th century (Fig. 6). The estimation might give a more plausible date for Tatarintsev's argument that circa-Altai throat-singing appeared later than Vainshtein estimated4 (Tatarintsev, 1998: 3-7, 47-50). This issue stands in need of future research.
Fortunately, the opportunity to listen to Tuvan music outside of the "original" place is turning to be explosively easier. And actually, the number of "foreign" artists profoundly affected by Tuvan music is now growing. Such newly emerged music can create some new meanings in different contexts. Then, when the impact of this music reaches back to the circa-Altai region, hopefully, it might evoke there new positive
1 This term originated from PER dastan "history, a theme, fable, romance, tale, news" (Steingass, 2000: 32). Destan is often translated as "epic," though both terms are not exact equivalents (Wilks 2001: 306). Identical designations exist in other languages: AZR dastan "epos, legend, epic, tale" (O'Sullivan et al., 1994: 95), TKM geccaH dessan [dessa:n] "destan" (Meskutov, 1988: 143), UZB gocroH doston "(music) dastan, oral epic, epic poem: "There are two categories of dastan: folk art (the genre of legend), in which heroic themes in poetic form prevail, and the prosaic literary development of fairy-tale plots, legends, and traditions of romantic, heroic, and fantastic themes." "The dastan developed broadly as a genre used by professional writers between the 16th and 18th centuries."" (Krippes, 1996: 45), etc.
2 Or identical variations as AZR Koroglu, TKM Gorogly, UZB Ko'ro'g'li / Go'ro'g'li, a most widespread epic story not only among Central Asian Turkic peoples, but also non-Turkic neighboring peoples in Armenia, Georgia, Kurdistan, Tajikistan, Iran, and Afghanistan (Wilks, 2001: 306).
3 This emergence may not be the simple "diffusion" or "independent invention," but the answer should be both (Renfrew, 1973: 124; Todoriki, 2009b: 99).
4 Vainshtein alleged, accounted Rail' G. Kuzeev, the date should be no later than the first millennium (Vainshtein, 1980: 156), and some are argued can be traced back to BC (Tatarintsev, 1998: 5, 49).
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meanings for their music.
Such frameworks as "authentic," "West and East," are quite frayed1 as a "spell" to understand the world. And at the same time, they turn to be a "curse." This article, too, sets a framework. However, the only way to break out of the existing ones is to make another framework, or use a framework to break itself. And when you really make it, a frontier turns into the forefront, West into East, and the fake into the genuine.
Acknowledgements
I thank the following institutions for making their precious materials open to me: National Museum of Ethnology Osaka, Ryukoku Uiversity, Hokkaido University, Kyoto University, University of Tokyo, Aldan Maadyr Tuvan National Museum, Tuvan Institute of Humanitarian Research, Martyanov Natural History Museum of Minusinsk, Pushkin House (Institute of Russian Literature), First Historical Archives of China, The National Palace Museum of Taipei, and Academia Sinica. I greatly appreciate enlightening discussions with and information from Drs. Robert O. Beahrs (University of Pittsburgh), Kumiko Uyeda (University of California, Santa Cruz), David Somfai Kara (Hungarian Academy of Sciences), Mark van Tongeren, Ken-Ichi Sakakibara (Health Sciences University of Hokkaido), Tsuneaki Akasaka (Tokyo University of Foreign Studies), Mr. Kaigal-ool K. Khovalyg, Steev Kindwald, Aleksei V. Raduk, Sauli Heikkila, Leo Tadagawa, Dmitrii Morenkov, and Ralph Leighton.
Tuvan transliteration and abbreviations
А/а: A/a; Б/б: B/b; В/в: V/v; Г/г: G/g; Д/д: D/d; Е/е: E/e; Ё/ё: Yo/yo; Ж/ж: Z/z (Zh/ zh); З/з: Z/z; И/и: I/i; Й/й: Y/y (I/i); К/к: K/k; Л/л: L/l; М/м: M/m; Н/н: N/n; Ц/ц: D/щ О/о: O/o; 0/e: O/o; П/п: P/p; Р/р: R/r; С/с: S/s; Т/т: T/t; У/у: U/u; У/у: U/ti; Х/х: X/x (Kh/kh); Ч/ч: С/с (Ch/ch); Ш/ш: S/s (Sh/sh); ъ: "; Ы/ы: I/i (Y/y); Э/э: E/e; Ю/ю: Yu/yu; Я/я: Ya/ya.
(This system was applied for other Siberian Turkic and Mongolic languages using Cyrillic alphabets.
For these terms, Cyrillic spellings are added for reference.).
ARA: Arabian language in American Library Association - Library of Congress (ALA-LC).
AZR: Azerbaijan laugage (Turkic).
BAS: Bashqort (Bashkir) language (Turkic).
1 Mark van Tongeren spent some lines to excuse that he had to be defined Sardinia and South Africa as "East" on his context (Tongeren, 2004: 154).
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BUR: Buryat language (Mongolic).
CHI: Chinese language (Sinitic) in Hanyu Pinyin.
CHG: Chagatai language (extinct; Turkic). The Arabic alphabet is transliterated along with the other Turkic languages.
CHT: Chinese transliteration for foreign words in Chinese characters.
CHU: Chuvash language (Turkic).
CTU: common Turkic from Clauson, 1972.
GRE: Greek language (Hellenic) in American Library Association - Library of Congress (ALA-LC).
IMO: Chakhar Mongolian language (Mongolic).
JUR: Jurchen (extinct; Tungusic).
KAM: Kamas language (extinct Southern-Samoyedic).
KAZ: Kazakh language (Turkic).
KHA: Khakas language (Turkic).
KOR: Korean language (Koreanic) in Revised Romanization (RR).
KYR: Kyrgyz (Kirghiz) language (Turkic).
MAN: Manchurian language (Tungusic) in Li, 2000: 23-25.
MAT: Mator language (extinct; Southern-Samoyedic).
MON: Khalkha Mongolian language (Mongolic).
NOG: Nogai language (Turkic).
N-ALT: Northern Altai language (Turkic).
n.d.: not detected.
OIR: Oirat language (including Kalmyk dialect; Mongolic). OTM: Ottoman language (extinct; Turkic).
PER: Persian language (Iranic) in American Library Association - Library of Congress (ALA-LC).
OYP: Oypchak (Kipchak) language (extinct; Turkic).
RUS: Russian language (Slavic).
S-ALT: Southern Altai language (Turkic).
SHO: Shor language (Turkic).
SSK: Sanskrit language (extinct; Indo-Aryan) in International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration (IAST).
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STA: Siberian-Tatar language (Turkic).
TIB: Tibetan language (Tibetic) in Wylie Transliteration.
TKM: Turkmen language (Turkic).
TUR: Turkish language (Turkic).
TUV: Tuvan language (Turkic).
UZB: Uzbek language (Turkic).
WMO: transliteration from Mongolian script in Poppe, 1974: 17.
WOI: transliteration from Oirat Mongolian script (Tod bicig or the "Clear Script") in Ochirbat, Hashimoto, 2005: 64-65.
XAK: Xakani language (extinct; Turkic) (Clauson 1972: xvii-xviii).
[A]: pronunciation according to International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA).
A < B: A was derived from B.
A / B: A or B, A also B.
Reconstructed words indicate in italic with a preceding asterisk (*).
Long vowel indicates both two vowels (ex. oo) and macron (ex.o), depend on the orthography of each languages, or referred articles. In both Mongolic and Turkic pronunciation, g and y (also k and q in some cases) between vowels work to elongate preceding/following vowels pronounced as long vowel (ex. oyu > [u:]).
My field trip: 1990 (Irkutsk); 1991 (Irkutsk, R. Buryat); 1992 (Irkutsk, R. Buryat, R. Tuva); 1993 (Irkutsk, R. Buryat, R. Tuva); 1994 (Irkutsk, R. Tuva); 1995 (Irkutsk, R. Buryat, R. Tuva); 1996 (Irkutsk, R. Tuva); 1997 (Irkutsk, R. Tuva); 1998 (Irkutsk, R. Tuva); 1999 (Irkutsk, R. Tuva); 2000 (R. Tuva, Irkutsk); 2001 (Irkutsk, R. Altai, R. Tuva, R. Khakas); 2002 (R. Tuva, R. Khakas, Khovd, Bayan-Olgii, Uvs); 2004 (R. Khakas, R. Tuva); 2007 (Xinjiang, R. Altai, Kemerovo, R. Khakas, Irkutsk, Tofalaria); 2008 (Inner Mongolia); 2010 (Irkutsk, R. Khakas, R. Tuva); 2011 (Khakas, Tuva, Tomsk, Irkutsk, Buryat); 2013 (R. Tuva, R. Khakas, Kemerovo, R. Altai, Irkutsk, R. Buryat).
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Дата поступления: 15.04.2017 г.
Для цитирования:
Todoriki M. Archaic Oirat substratum of the "circa-Altai musical Kulturkreis" in Tuva [Электронный ресурс] // Новые исследования Тувы. 2017, № 3. URL: https://nit.tuva. asia/nit/article/view/731 (дата обращения: дд.мм.гг.). DOI: 10.25178/nit.2017.3.9
For citation:
Todoriki M. Archaic Oirat substratum of the "circa-Altai musical Kulturkreis" in Tuva. The New Research of Tuva, 2017, no. 3 [on-line] Available at: https://nit.tuva.asia/nit/ article/view/731 (accessed: ... ). DOI: 10.25178/nit.2017.3.9
