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ЗАРУБЕЖНЫЕ ЛИТЕРАТУРЫ Foreign Literatures
S.V. Saveliev (Kolomna) ORCID ID: 0000-0002-7234-3286
I.G. Savelieva (Kolomna) ORCID ID: 0000-0001-5162-3273
AN OUTLOOK ON APPROACHES TO THE THEORY OF TRAVEL WRITING IN UK AND US ACADEMIA
Abstract. The purpose of the preset article is to give an overview of the current trends in Anglophone travel writing from the Russian research perspective. Travel writing, being a complex and ambiguous phenomenon has too rarely been a subject of extensive theoretical research in Russia. At the very same time within the Anglophone research tradition there exists and flourishes a whole plethora of theoretical approaches to it, something quite unthinkable of in Russian research tradition, which relies heavily on the principle of interpreting the text within a theoretical framework, rather than constructing a theory around the text. Thus, we decided to give an overview of the current trends in travel writing research, which proved to be productive, widely supported by the academia on the global scale and often either omitted or misread by researchers in Russia. In order to achieve this aim we considered the 'short comparative introduction' to be the most appropriate from as, on the one hand, it allowed us to familiarize the potential reader with the names and publication we consider good starting points for a further independent research into the subject, and on the other - show how the theories which dominated literary studies in the Western world in the second half of the 20th century contributed to the development of travel writing theory. The structure and the nature of the data available, allowed us to make a very interesting observation, being that the gender aspect of travel is something often either overlooked or oversimplified in Russian research.
Key words: travel literature; travelogue; gender studies; colonial studies; ethnography.
Новый филологический вестник. 2018. №2(45). --
С.В. Савельев (Коломна) ORCID ID: 0000-0002-7234-3286
И.Г. Савельева (Коломна) ORCID ID: 0000-0001-5162-3273
Англо-американская традиция изучения путевой прозы: к постановке проблемы
Аннотация. Цель настоящей статьи - дать обзор текущего состояния и тенденций в исследованиях литературы путешествий в англоязычной академической традиции с позиций российских исследователей. Будучи весьма сложным и противоречивым по своей сути явлением, литература путешествий достаточно редко становится предметом теоретических изысканий российских исследователей. В то же самое время англоязычная традиция может похвастаться целым рядом школ, направлений и подходов к изучению литературы путешествий, что является весьма нетипичным для российской традиции, пытающейся вписать произведение в рамки теоретической модели, а не конструировать теорию вокруг произведения. Таким образом, авторы дают обзор актуальных и ключевых тенденций в исследованиях литературы путешествий, доминирующих в зарубежных исследованиях жанра, но при этом не получающих достаточного освещения в российских исследованиях. Специфика проблемы и материала предопределила концепцию статьи, которую можно охарактеризовать как «краткое сравнительное введение в проблему». Такой подход позволил, с одной стороны, познакомить читателя с актуальными текстами и авторами, которые мы считаем хорошей отправной точной для дальнейшего самостоятельного научного поиска, а с другой - показать, как теории, преобладавшие в литературоведении второй половины ХХ в. отразились на формировании теории литературы путешествий. Характер рассмотренных в статье данных дал нам возможность сделать весьма интересное наблюдение, заключающееся в том, что в российских работах по литературе путешествий ген-дерный аспект данных произведений либо игнорируется, либо рассматривается достаточно однобоко и упрощенно.
Ключевые слова: литература путешествий; гендерные исследования; траве-лог; колониальные исследования; этнография.
In the present paper, we will try, as stated in the title, to give an overview of the current state of travel writing theory in the English speaking world and, hopefully, provide some sort of frame of reference for those who research travel writing in other academic environments. If we resort to the discourse of a travel narrative, we will try to "chart our version of the map" of this much understudied topic. Venturing on a project like this we understood that we will not, in the space, time and format provided, be able to preset a concise overview of theories of travel writing, since the tradition of this type of writing in the English-speaking world does not exist as the monolith. Rather, it is a heterogeneous mixture of ideas and reading and a whole array of competing theories.
Consequently, we decided to focus on the major topics and outlooks and try to relate that with the approaches to literary theory in Russia. We will also try to illustrate our ideas with some examples of or references to pre-18th century travelogues, with a particular focus on the Early Modern period. The rationale behind the choice of this particular timespan lies not in the personal idiosyncrasies for or fascination with particular period, but rather in the fact that from that very moment we have text from English travelers both real and fictional, as only then do English travelers start 'leaving a trace'. The notable exception of the travel of some Englishman Willibald in ca. AD 718 just confirms this statement. Further in the article we will show how current theories of travel writing emerged and were tested against the travelers' narratives of the period.
It would make sense to begin with at least some definition of travel writing. The seminal work of J.A. Cuddon, The Penguin Dictionary of Literary Terms and Literary Theory [Cuddon 1999] is a good starting point and, arguably, a benchmark for our text not just because in the past twenty years it has become a standard and even classic work reference, but because it, in a sense, summarizes the key dilemmas connected with the genre in question. To begin with, Cuddon's dictionary does not have an entry on 'travel writing' or 'travel literature' per se. What it has, is an entry on 'travel book' which already is quite suggestive and implies a wider interpretation with a particular focus on the social and cultural implications of travel their narratives, including texts which within Russian research tradition would normally be excluded from the scope of genre research, i.e. travel and survival guides and other vade mecums, as well as texts created by 'armchair travelers'. This vagueness of borders between what we can treat as travel writing within Anglophone research tradition, results not only in the blurring of borders between literature and journalism but also in the tendency to study travel narratives in conjunction with the history of ideas, like, for example in the recent publication by Lisa Colleta in which the travel writing of the Romantic Age and present-day narratives are viewed through the prism of Grand Tour, which is treated as a cultural phenomenon which, arguably, is still relevant today [The Legacy of the Grand Tour... 2015, ix-xv]. However, this umbrella definition of travel writing is a significant leap forward from the 1980s bibliographic rubric of the Modern Language Association of America: 'travel, treatment of', which is too generic even for a broad definition. Thus, we have can safely proceed further, accepting that, at least within the Anglophone research paradigm, any piece of writing which resulted from going on a journey, either real or fictional, or planning such a journey or even being not at home can count as travel writing. However, Tony Davenport argues, that we have to be very cautious when dealing with medieval travels, as the travel motif is often used as an element of allegory [Davenport 2004, 184-185], though narratives of 'travelling around', though magical are not uncommon [Прохоров / Prokhorov 2017, 17-19].
It appears that within the Anglophone tradition the study of travel literature is very rarely reduced to the study of the poetics of travel narrative. The same is true of genre studies. The explanation of this approach might lie in the inherent
skepticism concerning theoretical frameworks, which are viewed as possible distortion mirrors [Hewitt 1997, 64-67]. Strangely enough, we do not have a lot of travel writing research from the 1950s, as travel writing in that period was treated mainly as a sub-sub-genre, not worthy of serious scholarly research. The commonly accepted explanation links the rise of travel writing research with the post-World War II decolonization and immigration movements. These processes resulted in the emergence of new literatures, new writing personas, themes, experiences, etc. This polyphony in the true Bakhtinan sense created a body of ideas and texts which were sort of terra incognita for the exploration of which travel narratives, both dated and recent, suddenly appeared quite relevant. Indeed, to assess and explain the post- and neo-colonial literary and media discourse it is very helpful to have some textual context, a sort of benchmark. This way the observations, interpretations, explanations of the rise and subsequent collapse of this colonial world was done through analysis of writings about 'foreign' and especially 'exotic' places in which the Europeans had travelled and where the ancestor of the 'post-colonials' lived: as colonial masters, pilgrims, explorers, ambassadors, ambivalent women, soldiers, eccentrics, conquistadores, missionaries, merchants, cast-aways, dare-devils of all sorts and even ur-tourists. This focus on the 'colonial' reading arguably continues to be relevant for the study or Renaissance and Early Modern period, as it allows to bring together aspects of race, ethnicity, politics and even Englishness [Hadfield 1998, 1-2].
This broader cultural and political context defined the first theories of travel writing which emerged within the theoretical frameworks of structuralists who suggested some interesting readings of travel accounts, which before that were reduced by scholars to mere examples of archival data which was either boring or of little use for a literary study. The ideas of structuralists contributed to the techniques of 'tearing the text apart', which was of great help in the study of authenticity and authorship, some of the most troublesome aspects of travel writing. Within the American New Criticsm the 'close reading' approach became extremely popular. The rise of discourse theories in 1980s did also affect travel writing research which now focuses not on individual texts or authors, but rather on the collectively produced 'texts'. In this respect the seminal work of Hayden White is worth mentioning as it manifests a turn from the proper travel writing studies to historiography and the analysis of both 'discourse' and specific examples of non-fictional representation [White 1978].
The consecutive turns to structuralism, semiotics, structuralism, close reading, new historism and discourse studies had a very peculiar outcome. One result of this variety of approaches was the emergence of interest to travel writing as a source of data for political and colonial studies and imperial criticism which in recent years has been focusing not the 'old European colonial and imperial powers' but also on the United States and Russia, which in Early Modern, and arguably contemporary discourse of travel writing is rather a discursive formation, like 'the Middle East' [Boterbloem 2008, 79]. History, including ancient history, composes itself now from different images, different facts, and most
importantly, different and multiple points of view. Students in most English-speaking countries are asked to read against the grain of what they are now regularly taught to see, at least at the post-secondary level, as situated and ideological texts, and they are also enabled to study a wider range of texts, produced by a wider range of authors and 'cultures', than they had before. At the very same time, current phenomena which, very much unlike the Russian research tradition are considered to be subject matter for literary theory, i.e. globalisation, diaspora, 'nomadism', and cyberspace. Mary Baine Campbell points out that current research of travel writing focuses on the cultures and people that have a location, have an imperial or colonial past and can be tied to certain nations [Campbell 1991]. This in turn results a theoretical and practical contradiction, as, arguably, the notes of English travelers in the Eastern Mediterranean in the 1920s and 1930s, and even the 1950s are not necessarily relevant for the explanation of the current situation there [Савельева / Savelieva 2011, 253-255].
Thus we can say that currently travel writing research, or, rather, 'readings' of it within Anglophone academic environment focuses on historical and cultural revision of both texts and interpretations. As a kind of writing, travelogue provokes certain questions which are of rather literary, then historical or ethnographic nature. Most interesting here are works of literary criticism that directly explore issues of power, knowledge, and identity as a consequence of the very nature of the formal matters raised [Whitfield 2011].
The study of bibliographies and 'introductions' to travel writing allow us to say that cultural studies, history (including art history and history of science), anthropology, geography, and area studies appear to be both the areas in which either contribute greatly to the development of theoretical frameworks of travel writing research or are the main 'consumers' of such travel writing research findings [Carey, Jowitt 2009, 95-98]. We will now focus on some key texts and topics, which, as we assume, might allow the reader to have some points of reference. Special attention will be paid to Pre- and Early Modern texts not only because of our personal interest in them, but rather because the readings and interpretations of modern post-colonial travelogues and narrates of the 'exotic' use those early texts as backdrops. Another important consideration here is the recent revival of interest in the Early Modern travelogue per se [Hadfield 1998, 2-5].
Travel and Gender. Women on the Go
One of the most popular lines of inquiry into travel writing would probably be linking it with gender studies. Indeed, if we look at the earliest travelogues like The Odyssey or even Travels of Sir John Mandeville or St. Brendan's Voyage, texts which, except maybe for the Odyssey, are in Russian research tradition not exactly travel narratives, we will see that the vast majority of such texts were written by men and often men, not women were the supposed readers of such texts. This proved to be a very good ground for feminist and later gender approach to the study of travelogue. A part of ideological stance of feminist
revival of the early 1970s was a conscious revision of the history, which was perceived as written by men. This in turn resulted in the growth of interest in women travelers. This rise of feminist travel studies resulted in a very interesting paradox: it seemed that. In Paul Fussell's study of travel writing, women are non-existent [Fussell 1980]. The first stages of the revival were therefore to make available works that had all but disappeared and to remind readers of the number of women travellers who had written about their journeys. The UK feminist publishing house, Virago, reprinted classic travel books by women such as Isabella Bird and Mary Kingsley, while a number of insightful studies of women traveler narratives from as early as 1630s began to appear [Saunders 2014, 2-5].
The titles of some of these studies reflect a particular way of looking at women travelers. Though praising their efforts and achievements, the authors hint nevertheless that they are slightly eccentric, and introduce a comic note that can easily be interpreted as mocking and focusing on their refusal to conform to social norms of the day [Ladies on the Loose... 1981, x-xii]. Women travelers are therefore if not still stigmatized, but definitely categorized as an apparently different sort of traveler, as, on the one hand they do not appear to be the accepting the stereotype of a sit at home woman, on the other hand, from men, travel for material gain or simply to text the level of his ability. Thus, the research of this kind focuses on women travelers as escapees from the society which constrains them.
A significant change in attitude to women travelers and a view of them happened after the publication by Jane Robinson, which, apart from providing a vast bibliography of texts created by women travelers, also contains brief biographical highlights of those 400 women travelers writing in English [Robinson 1990]. In her subsequent book Robison argues, that women 'have rarely been commissioned to travel, hence in the absence of a patron or authority figure women can afford to be more discursive, more impressionable, more ordinary' [Robinson 2001, xii]. This statement can be supported with a lovely quote from Mary Wollstonecraft's travelogue on her travels in Scandinavia, where you fund a more humane, and emotional response to what she sees, especially when it concerns nature:
"Arriving at the ferry (the passage over to Moss is about six or eight English miles) I saw the most level shore I had yet seen in Norway. The appearance of the circumjacent country had been preparing me for the change of scene which was to greet me when I reached the coast. For the grand features of nature had been dwindling into prettiness as I advanced; yet the rocks, on a smaller scale, were finely wooded to the water's edge. Little art appeared, yet sublimity everywhere gave place to elegance. The road had often assumed the appearance of a gravelled one, made in pleasure-grounds; whilst the trees excited only an idea of embellishment. Meadows, like lawns, in an endless variety, displayed the careless graces of nature; and the ripening corn gave a richness to the landscape analogous with the other objects" [Wollstonecraft, Horrocks 2013, 63].
From this follows a very peculiar statement of women more observant on the 'mundane' and often more open-minded about it in their travel narratives. In this respect it is worth mentioning Gillian Rose who examines the distinction between public and private spaces for women, and discusses the importance of what she calls 'time-geography' [Rose 1993, 6]. Here were an extreme case of travel writing research in which the concept of 'going somewhere' transforms
into the idea of the world mapped by men, and thus requires a female 'remapping'.
One of the omnipresent themes of many popular studies of women travel writing is the difference between their lives at home and life on the road. Women travelers are often presented as having been somehow able to break free of the constraints of contemporary society, realising their potential once outside the boundaries of a restrictive social order. This is particularly of the exceptional travelers like Margery Kempe, whose apparent freedom and eccentricity often resulted in puzzlement and even accusations of heresy [Goodman 2002, 124]. Travel writing is always a product of a particular time and a particular culture: the women travelers of the eighteenth century and earlier, deemed to be exceptional, reflected social attitudes towards women's mobility, just as the need for so many women travel writers to reinvent themselves in the age of empire derived from their reactions to their position in a hierarchical society of unequal opportunity. As travel writing has increased in popularity, so distinctive sub-genres have emerged. We still have texts that present the narrator as an all-action, heroic figure, though there are also ironic texts narrated by anti-heroes, there are texts full of scholarly detail, and texts consisting of superficial anecdotes and casual conversations. Travel writers today are producing texts for an age characterized by increasing interest in concepts of hybridity, an age in which theories of race and ethnicity, once used as means of dividing peoples, are starting to crumble under the pressure of the millions in movement around the world.
Travel Writing and Ethnography: Mapping Peoples and Lands
The description of peoples, their nature, customs, religion, forms of government, and language, is so embedded in the travel writing produced in Europe after the sixteenth century that one assumes ethnography to be essential to the genre. In England this assumption became part of the justification for the most representative form of this writing, the travel collections published from the sixteenth to the nineteenth centuries. Therefore, the description of peoples became the empirical foundation for a general rewriting of 'natural and moral history' within a new cosmography made possible by the navigations of the period. A quotation from Awnsham and John Churchill fits in quite well here:
"What was Cosmography before these discoveries, but an imperfect fragment of science, scarce deserving so good a name? ... But now Geography and Hydrography have received some perfection by the pains of so many mariners and travellers ... Natu-
ral and Moral History is embellished with the most beneficial increase of so many thousands of plants ... drugs and spices ... beasts, birds and fishes ... minerals, mountains and waters ... [and] such unaccountable diversities of climates and men, and in them complexions, tempers, habits, manners, politicks and religions ..." [Churchill A., Churchill J. 1704, lxxiii].
Indeed, as Peter Whitfield points out the seventeenth century travelers unlike their earlier counterparts are "observing but not conquering" [Whitfield 2011, 79], thus introducing the concept of 'moral history' of the world. The concept of a 'moral' history (moral as involving human rational capacities) had been clearly defined in the sixteenth century by writers like Samuel Purchas, the most influential English travel collector of the seventeenth century who explained that, amongst the vast material of natural and human history he had omitted the most common and dry, selecting either 'rarities of nature' or accounts of non-European (and 'remote' European) peoples. It was the moral element, 'things humane', and in particular 'varieties of men and humane affaires', which he emphasized [Purchas 1625, 'To the reader'].
Since the Renaissance, the depiction of alien people was both a lively source of amusement and entertainment and an indispensable source of evidence for philosophical debates on the existence of universal human traits. However, not all colonial cultures produces large corpuses of such descriptive texts. The abundance of English texts was the product of a unique combination of colonial expansion and intellectual transformation of English society. Despite the variety of forms of travel writing, it may be possible to generalize that the desire for information, for mainly practical purposes, lies behind the growth of the European genre of non-fictional travel writing throughout the Renaissance Early Modern period. The problem of the nature of ethnographic knowledge, so important for modern anthropology, did not often seem crucial to its earlier European practitioners, who simply described what they saw or expected to see with the quality and vigor of the writing solely depended on the skill of the observer.
Travel Writing and Politics: Writing Down the Empire
It would be safe to say that an overwhelming majority of those writing while traveling were a part of the grand imperial scheme, in which the curious had to be subdued and put to good use for the sake of the Empire. The accounts of the Muscovy company, as well as the less formalized and more lively narratives of its affiliated people are a good example of it [Mayers 2005, 124-130]. From this emerges a fundamental issue about the political dimension of the description of other peoples in travel writing, which becomes a justification, or a tool, for empire. In some cases the evidence is clear enough. The famous line from Edmund Spenser about a number of Irish customs being 'repugnant to the good government of the realme', very overtly shows it is the English dominion that will benefit, since the Irish did not clearly wish to be brought by force and through loss of liberty from 'licentious barbarisme' to 'the love of goodnes and
civilitie'. Thus the Irish traditional means of clothing, the mantle, is 'a fit house for an outlaw, a meet bed for a rebel, and an apt cloke for a theife' - that is, it empowers the Irish against the English and thus must be forbidden [Spenser, Hadfield, Maley 1997, 20-1, 56-8].
However, one should not be misled by the catchy titles of some works and papers that ethnography can and is reduces to imperialism. Far from it. Even ethnographic works clearly written within the discourse of the rising British Empire could be impressively systematic and neutral, or even sympathetic, in tone. A very good example here is the text of Peter Mundy, a prolific English travel writer and a globetrotter, who seems be less prone to the sin of 'European superiority' to the 'barbarous locals':
Their dwelling houses after the Manner of their Churches, of wood, allsoe differing in bignesse; the walls off trees placed one over another, the ends inlaid one within another, and beetweene caulked with Mosse. The better sort off them are within sides playne, smooth, Nett and Sweete, nott unwholesom, allthough daungerous For Fire [The Travels of Peter Mundy. 2010, 210].
Finally, the considerable evidence of imperialist uses and assumptions within the ethnographic discourse of travel writing must be set against not a small number of ethnographies which were anti-imperialist in general intent. Some of these romanticized natives, introducing, especially in the Romantic Age, the idea of the 'noble savage', or tried to go beyond the stereotype and try to rationalize the differences between the cultural systems [Struys, Butler, Morrison 1684, 175-179].
Ethnography and Science: Rationalizing the Bizarre
The predictable outcome of the tendency to look at travel writing as both a direct product of the dominant discourse of the age, and a source text which allows us to look into the ways of rationalizing the world around us those who wrote and, arguably, more important read them. The Early Modern Era is as Michael McKeon point out the period when we see how science, philosophy, literary discourse and observation merge into a new type of travel narrative [McKeon 2002, 101]. This results in the new theory of writing about the far away lands, as now travel accounts have to stand the test of corroboration and are often not taken at face value, as for example the accounts of Purchas, mentioned earlier in the article [Hayden 2012]. This in turn results in a different contemporary reading of the travelogues, as well as proper fictional texts created at the time. Following Stephen Shapin we can argue that in the Early Modern Era credibility of a witness, in our case the authorial figure of the travel narrative, is often linked to the status of this traveler [Shapin 1988, 376]. This obsession with 'anti-Mandevillism' explains certain trends in the wider literary culture, as, for example, the famous passage from Aphra Behn's Oroonoko: Or, The Royal Slave which has a very suggestive opening:
"I do not pretend, in giving you the History of this Royal Slave, to entertain my Reader with the Adventures of a feign'd Hero, whose Life and Fortunes
Fancy may manage at the Poets Pleasure .... I was my self an Eye-Witness to a great part, of what you will find here set down; and what I cou'd not be Witness of, I receiv'd from the Mouth of the chief Actor in this History, the Hero himself' [Behn, Lipking 1997, 57].
Thus the focus of the travelers, particularly English, is to rediscover the regions which were 'dubiously if at all charted'. Here it is worth looking at the travelogue of Sir Henry Blount, who around 1620s visited the parts of eastern Europe which at the time were under Ottoman rule, with the purpose to discover whether Turkish culture was 'absolutely barbarous, or rather another kind of civility, different from ours'. The Turkish Empire had invaded the world, he says, and an understanding of its principles and its conduct was imperative. He was determined to investigate this subject not through books but through unprejudiced eyes, in person, in Turkey itself and among the peoples who lived subject to them. Landing at Spalato, Blount toured the remains of the Palace of Diocletian, then crossed the Dinaric Alps into Turkish territory, dressed as a Turk, but wearing a cross on his turban. He was more than once confronted by bandits, but he hit upon a pose of bravado and good humor in dealing with them that won their respect and ensured his own safety. Arriving in Sarajevo he was astounded by the giant-like stature of the men, whom he thought must be descendants of Teutons described by Caesar and Tacitus. From Sarajevo he moved on to Belgrade, where he found himself surprisingly free to roam around the castle and fortifications. He was given a sharp insight into the deep ethnic hatreds of this region when he befriended a brutal and embittered Serbian eunuch in the garrison:
"I, going to visit him in his house, nigh the River Danubius, found him alone, very drunk; he out of that heat, and experience of my engagement, fell to rail against the Turks, and withal showing me how they had marred his game, well, (quoth he) do you see that River, there seldom hath past week since I have been in this city (which was half a year) but some night or other, I have thrown some of their children therein, and he told me that formerly in other places, he had done many such secret revenges, for their gelding of him" [Blount 1977, 133].
It is worth noting here that the focus of the research of such travels would be on the contrast between the travelers criticism of the politics of the country they visit, and open-mindedness concerning everyday life and practical matters. This approach, very typical of recent UK studies of travel narratives of the period can be easily traced in Whitfield's work, who brilliantly summarizes that the central point about the narratives like Blount's is that they are permeated by a sense of superiority, a faint contempt for whatever is foreign, their eyebrows raised at the strange pantomime of life abroad. The writer is portrayed as if stirring the waters of some exotic pool and revealing bizarre life forms in its depths. The purpose of the travel writer was to investigate these alien regions and bring back reports on them to England, the land of sanity and sense. The traveler juggles with familiar and unfamiliar environments, crossing over from the known to the unknown, the familiar to the bizarre, and probing the differences between them
[Whitfield 2011, 120].
The present paper was prepared within the framework of the research grant No. 16-34-00017: Obscure Early Modern European Travelogues: Textology. Poetics. Bibliography funded by the Russian Foundation for Basic Research.
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Saveliev Sergey V., State University for the Humanities and Social Studies.
Candidate of Philology, Associate Professor at the Department of Foreign Languages. Research interests: Middle English Literature, multilingualism, translation studies, John Gower, travel writing.
E-mail: saveliev.v.sergey@gmail.com
Savelieva Inna G., State University for the Humanities and Social Studies.
Candidate of Philology, Associate Professor at the Department of Foreign Languages. Research interests: travel writing, Lawrence Durrell, John Fowls, fan fiction.
E-mail: inna.savelieva@gmail.com
Савельев Сергей Владимирович, Государственный социально-гуманитарный университет.
Кандидат филологических наук, доцент кафедры иностранных языков. Научные интересы: средневековая английская литература, многоязычие, переводо-ведение, Джон Гауэр, литература путешествий.
E-mail: saveliev.v.sergey@gmail.com
Савельева Инна Геннадиевна, Государственный социально-гуманитарный университет.
Кандидат филологических наук, доцент кафедры иностранных языков. Научные интересы: литература путешествий, Лоренс Даррелл, Джон Фаулз, маргинальные литературные жанры.
E-mail: inna.savelieva@gmail.com
