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An indirect evidence of piezonuclear fission reactions: Geomechanical and geochemical evolution in the Earth’s crust
A. Carpinteri, A. Manuello
Department of Structural Engineering and Geotechnics, Politecnico di Torino, Turin, 10129, Italy
Piezonuclear reactions, which occur in inert and nonradioactive elements, are induced by high pressure and, in particular, by brittle fracture phenomena in solids under compression. These low energy reactions generally take place in nuclei with an atomic weight that is lower or equal to that of iron (Fe). The experimental evidence, obtained from repeatable measurements of neutron emissions, can be also recognized considering the anomalous chemical balances of the major events that have affected the Earth’s crust, oceans and atmosphere, over the last four billion years. These anomalies include: (i) the abrupt variations in the most abundant elements in correspondence to the formation of tectonic plates; (ii) the Great Oxidation Event (2.7 to 2.4 billion years ago), with a sharp increase in atmospheric oxygen and the subsequent origin of life; (iii) the increase of carbon and nytrogen concentrations in the primordial atmosphere.
Natural piezonuclear reactions are induced by fault sliding and plate subduction phenomena.
Keywords: neutron emissions, piezonuclear reactions, rocks crushing, plate tectonics, element evolution, great oxidation event, carbon pollution
1. Introduction
Over the last century, most recent scientific disciplines such as cosmology, astrophysics, and geology, have tried to answer questions concerning the origin of the Earth and the Universe [1, 2]. Such questions have now given place to interrogations concerning the substance that composes the Universe, the heterogeneous distribution of the main elements on the Earth, and their evolution in time [1-7].
The Earth’s composition and its way of evolving throughout the geologic eras are topics that give rise to an abundancy of questions that have remained unanswered [3, 7]. In fact, we still do not know whether the distribution of the constituent elements is the result of the initial formation phases of the proto-Earth, or if it is the effect of slow transformations that started to occur after the beginning of terrestrial evolution, about 4.57 billion years (Gyrs) ago
[5-7].
Significant events, such as the Great Oxidation Event (GOE), in which 105-fold increase in the concentration of oxygen took place in the Earth’s atmosphere between 2.7 and 2.4 Gyrs ago [8-13], the sharp iron depletion in the composition of the oceans and Earth’s crust [6, 10, 14, 15], and the drastic decrease in nickel [15, 16], are just some of the major events pertaining to the Earth’s dynamics and the
evolution of chemical elements that have remained unresolved.
In this work, which is based on recent studies by Carpinteri et al. [17] and Cardone et al. [18] concerning the piezonuclear fission reactions, a geophysical and geological explanation is proposed to the main compositional variations in the Earth’s crust and atmosphere, from their origin until present times.
It has been shown that pressure waves, exerted on radioactive or inert media, can generate nuclear reactions and reproducible neutron emissions. In particular, low energy nuclear reactions and heat generation have been verified in pressurized deuterium gas by Arata et al. [19, 20], and in radioactive deuterium-containing liquids during ultrasounds and cavitation by Taleyarkhan et al. [21]. The experiments recently proposed by Carpinteri et al. [17] and by Cardone et al. [18] follow a different path from those of other research teams and represent the first evidence of piezonuclear reactions and neutron emissions in inert, stable and nonradioactive solids under compression, as well as in nonradioactive liquids during ultrasound cavitation [22, 23].
Neutron emission measurements, by means of 3He neutron detectors, have recently been performed on solid test specimens during crushing failure [17, 18]. These relevant results in particular regard neutron emissions from gra-
© Carpinteri A., Manuello A., 2012
nite (gneiss) specimens that should be caused by “nucleolysis” or piezonuclear “fissions”, occurred in the tested material, transforming heavier (Fe) into lighter (Mg, Al, Si) atoms. These reactions — less infrequent than we could think — would be activated where the environment conditions (pressure and temperature) are particularly severe, and mechanical phenomena of fracture, crushing, fragmentation, comminution, erosion, friction, etc., may occur [17, 18, 24, 25].
From this point of view, piezonuclear reactions, induced by the sliding of faults and plate subduction phenomena at the Earth’s crust scale could imply the different mineral reservoir locations on the Earth’s surface and the most significant chemical element evolutions over the past 4.57 Gyrs (Earth’s life time). The geomechanical and geochemical evidence shown in this paper involve not only the most abundant elements in the Earth’s crust such as Si, Al, Mg, Fe, Ca, K, and Na, but also the most important components of the Earth’s atmosphere (N, O, and C). Piezonuclear reactions, induced by tectonic activity, could explain the great variations that have taken place in the composition of the early Earth’s atmosphere, and the current climate acceleration partially due to CO2 emissions. In this way, plate tectonics and the connected plate collision and subduction phenomena are useful to understand not only the morphology of our planet, but also its compositional evolution.
2. Piezonuclear reactions: From the laboratory to the Earth scale
2.1. Neutron emission measurements from brittle fracture
In the recent papers by Carpinteri et al. [17] and by Car-done et al. [18], the neutron measurements obtained from two granite specimens under compressive loading condition have exceeded the neutron background by approximately one order of magnitude, in correspondence to their brittle failure [17, 18]. These early results on piezonuclear reactions from brittle fractures of green Luserna granite (gneiss) specimens may be accounted for by the catastrophic nature of the failure [26-28]. From this experimental evidence, it can clearly be seen that piezonuclear reactions that give rise to neutron emissions are possible in inert nonradioactive solids [17, 18], in addition to liquids [22, 23]. In this case, an important aspect that should be taken into account is the composition of the materials in which the piezonuclear reactions have occurred. Green Luserna granite contains a considerable amount of iron oxides (-3 % of Fe2O3, as total Fe) [29]. The iron content of the green Luserna granite used in the piezonuclear experiments could contribute to the phenomenon in question, in analogy with the case of piezonuclear reactions in liquids. Piezonuclear reactions with neutron emissions have in fact been obtained in liquids containing iron chloride or iron nitrate and subjected to ultrasounds and cavitation [22, 23]. In these expe-
riments on liquid solutions, aluminum atoms appeared at the end in a final quantity as large as about seven times the small initial quantity. Similarly, for the fracture experiments on green Luserna stone specimens analysis of the fracture surfaces, conducted by energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, have shown a considerable reduction in the iron content (25 %) [24]. This iron decrease is counterbalanced by an increase in aluminum, silicon, and magnesium. In particular, the increase in aluminum content corresponds to the eighty-five percent of the iron decrease. Therefore, the piezonuclear fission reactions:
Fe^6 ^ 2Alj2J + 2 neutrons, (1)
Fe|6 ^ Mgj24 + Si^ + 4 neutrons (2)
should have occurred [17, 18, 24].
Considering that granite, which is predominantly constituted by quartz and feldspar minerals, is a common and widely occurring type of intrusive, Sialic, igneous rock and that it is characterized by an extensive concentration in the rocks that make up the Earth’s crust (-60 % of the Earth’s crust), the piezonuclear fission reactions expressed above can be generalized from the laboratory to the Earth’s crust scale, where mechanical phenomena of brittle fracture, due to fault collision and subduction, take place continuously in most seismic areas [30-32].
This hypothesis seems to find surprising evidence and confirmation from both the geomechanical and the geochemical points of view.
The neutron emissions involved in piezonuclear reactions can be detected not only in laboratory experiments, as shown in [17, 18], but also at the Earth’s crust scale. Recent neutron emission detections by Kuzhevskij [33, 34] have led to consider also the Earth’s crust, in addition to cosmic rays, as being a relevant source of neutron flux variations. Neutron emissions measured near the Earth’s surface exceeded the neutron background by about three orders of magnitude in correspondence to seismic activity and more appreciable earthquakes [35]. This relationship between the processes in the Earth’s crust and neutron flux growth has allowed increasing tectonic activity to be detected and methods for short-term prediction and monitoring of earthquakes to be developed [33-35].
2.2. Chemical composition of the Earth's continental and oceanic crust
Neutron flux variations, in correspondence to seismic activity, may be evidence of changes in the chemical composition of the crust, as a result of piezonuclear reactions.
The mass percentage concentrations of the most common chemical elements and oxides in the Earth’s oceanic and continental crust are reported in Fig. 1 and in Tables 1 and 2. The present natural abundances of aluminum (-8 %), silicon (28 %) and magnesium (1.3 %) and scarcity of iron (-4 %) in the continental Earth’s crust (Fig. !(£)) are possib-
O Fe Si Mg Ni Al Ca K Na P Element
H-----1----1----T — ■-------1----,-----,----,---
O Fe Si Mg Ni Al Ca K Na P Element
Fig. 1. Mass percentage concentrations of the most common elements in the Earth’s oceanic (a) and continental (b) crust [3-5]
ly due to the piezonuclear fission reactions (1), (2) expressed above. In addition, considering the mass percentage concentrations of other chemical elements, such as Na (-2.9 %), Ni (-0.01 %), and Co (0.003 %), in the continental crust [3-5, 30-32] (see Fig. 1(b), Tables 1, 2), it is possible to conjecture additional piezonuclear fission reactions that could have taken place in correspondence to plate collision and subduction [25]:
Co27 ^ Al^7 + Sijf + 4 neutrons, (3)
Ni|| ^ 2Si24 + 3 neutrons, (4)
Nif8 ^ Na^j5 + Cl37 +1 neutron. (5)
The large concentrations of granite minerals, such as quartz and feldspar (SiO2, Al2O3) in the Earth’s crust, and to a lesser extent of magnesite, halite, and zeolite (MgO, Na2O, Cl2O3), and the low concentrations of magnetite, hematite, bunsenite and cobaltite minerals (composed predominantly of Fe, Co, and Ni molecules), could be ascribed
Table 1
Chemical composition of the Earth’s continental and oceanic crust (oxides)
Oxide Molar mass Oceanic crust mass concentration, % Continental crust mass concentration, %
SiO2 60 49.40 56.60
TiO2 80 1.70 0.60
Al2O3 102 15.40 16.00
FeO 72 10.10 5.00
MnO 71 0.18 0.10
MgO 40 7.60 2.80
CaO 56 11.20 4.70
Na2O 62 2.60 3. 0
K2O 94 0.30 1.90
P2O5 156 0.35 0.10
to piezonuclear reactions (1)-(5) due to tectonic and sub-duction phenomena.
In order to recognize the effects of piezonuclear reactions on the Earth’s crust, the differences in chemical composition between the continental and oceanic crust have to be considered. The oceanic crust is mainly composed of basaltic sediments (with high percentages of FeO and MgO) with a density of about 3 g/cm3 (Fig. 1(a)). The continental crust, instead, which has a density of -2.5 g/cm3, presents a Sialic or granitic composition (very high concentrations of Al and Si oxides), see Fig. 1(b) [3-5]. These two kinds of Earth’s crust differ not only because of the dating of the sediments but also because of the geological processes by which they were formed [3-5, 32, 36-39].
At the sea bottom, the eighty-five percent of the Earth’s volcanic eruptions take place in correspondence to midocean ridges [36]. These submarine volcanoes generate the solid underpinnings of all the Earth’s oceans, massive slabs of rocks that are generally less than ten kilometers thick (oceanic crust). The sediments that constitute the oceanic crust come into collision (subduction) with the continental plates that are sinking into the Earth’s mantle. Very high pressures are developed during this phenomenon, due to the continuous impacts (seismic activity) between the oceanic plates and the continental littorals [3, 31, 39-41]. Part of the oceanic crust is actually melted inside the upper mantle, while the remaining “accretionary wedge” provokes continental growth (accretionary model) [3-5, 36]. Comparing the data shown in Fig. 1 concerning the composition of the two different types of terrestrial crust, it can be noted that the iron concentration changes from -4 %, in the continental crust, to -8 % in the oceanic one, with a relative increase of 100 %. Ni changes from -0.01 %, in the continental crust (see Table 2), to -0.03 % in the oceanic one (about a three-fold increase). And vice versa, Al, Si, and Na vary from -7, -24 and -1 % in the oceanic crust, to -8, -28 and -2.9 % in the continental crust, respectively.
Table 2
Chemical composition of the Earth’s continental and oceanic crust (elements). Most abundant elements
Element Z Oceanic crust mass concentration, % Continental crust mass concentration, %
O 6 49.50 47. 0
Fe 26 7.80 4. 0
Si 14 24.00 28.00
Mg 12 3.60 1.30
Ni 28 0.03 0.01
Al 13 7.00 8.30
Ca 20 8.90 3. 0
K 19 0.10 2.80
Na 11 1.00 2.90
P 15 0.90 0.80
Co 27 - 0.003
Considering that approximatively 50 % of the continental crust has originated over the last 3.8 Gyrs, as a result of oceanic crust subduction [3-5, 39-41], the considerable variations in the composition of the oceanic to the continental crust would seem to remain a mystery [36].
The authors’ opinion is that piezonuclear reactions (1)-
(5) could explain this particular phenomenon. Thus, the higher concentrations of Si, Al, Na and Cl oxides in the continental crust and the low percentages of Fe, Co and Ni oxides could be considered as the piezonuclear effects of tectonic activity and subduction phenomena.
As far as the concentration of Mg, reported in Fig. 1 and Tabs. 1 and 2, is concerned, its present abundances in the continental (-1.3 %) and oceanic (-3.6 %) crust seem to be in contrast with piezonuclear reaction (2). The reason for this is that the Mg balance is more complex than those of the other elements (Ni, Fe, Si, Al, Na, Cl). As will be seen in the following, Mg is involved in other piezonuclear reactions that could explain the global decrease in Mg concentration from the oceanic to the continental crust, over different geological eras. This fact provides important explanations concerning the composition of atmosphere in the past and the present natural CO2 emissions.
2.3. Heterogeneity in the composition of the Earth s crust: Fe and Al reservoir locations
After having considered piezonuclear fission reactions, during plate tectonics, as a possible explanation for the anomalous compositional transition between the oceanic and continental crust, it appears also possible to explain the heterogeneity in the distribution of aluminum and iron minerals over the Earth’s surface.
The location of Al and Fe mineral reservoirs seems to be closely connected to the geological periods when different continental zones were formed [39-45]. This fact would seem to suggest that our planet has undergone a continuous evolution from the most ancient geological regions, which currently reflect the continental cores that are rich in Fe reservoirs, to more recent or contemporary areas of the Earth’s crust where the concentrations of Si and Al oxides present very high mass percentages [3]. The main iron reservoir locations (magnetite and hematite mines) are reported in Fig. 2(a). The most abundant iron reservoirs are located in North-Central USA, Eastern Canada, North-Central Brazil, Central Australia, Ukraine, Russia, Mongolia, and North-Central China [42-45].
The main concentrations of Al-oxides and rocky andesi-tic formations (the Rocky Mountains and the Andes, with a strong concentration of Al2O3 minerals), are shown in Fig. 2(b) together with the most important subduction lines, plate tectonic trenches and rifts [3, 39]. The largest bauxite and alumina mines are located in Jamaica, Mexico, the North-Eastern littorals of Brazil, Guyana, the Gulf of Gui-
Iron reservoirs:
▲ more than 40 Mt/year • from 0.5 to 40 Mt/year
Aluminum reservoirs: Subduction lines and
• more than 10 Mt/year plate trenches
• from 5 to 10 Mt/year
• from 1 to 5 Mt/year i--------1 Large andesitic formations (the Rocky
• from 0.5 to 1 Mt/year -------1 Mountains and the Andes)
Fig. 2. a — locations of the largest iron mines in the world [41-45], iron ore reservoirs (magnetite and hematite mines) are located in geographic areas with reduced seismic risks and always far from fault lines; b — the largest aluminum (bauxite) reservoirs are reported together with the main andesitic formations and most important subduction lines and plate tectonic trenches [3, 39, 44], the largest Al reservoirs are located in correspondence to the most seismic areas and the largest faults
nea, India, the Chinese littorals along the East China Sea, Greece, the South of Italy, the Philippines, New Guinea, and the Australian coast [3, 44].
The iron and bauxite mine locations shown in Fig. 2 offer important geophysical evidence that piezonuclear reactions have continuously taken place during the geological formation of the Earth’s crust. The geographical locations of main bauxite mines show that the largest concentrations of Al reservoirs can be found in correspondence to the most seismic areas of the Earth (Fig. 2(b)). The main iron mines are instead exclusively located in the oldest and interior parts of continents (formed through the eruptive activity of the proto-Earth), in geographic areas with a reduced seismic risk and always far from the main fault lines. From this point of view, the close correlation between bauxite and andesitic reservoirs and the subduction and most seismic areas of the Earth’s crust provides very impressive evidence of piezonuclear effects at the planetary scale.
3. Geochemical evidence of piezonuclear reactions in the evolution of the Earth’s crust
Chemical evolution in the Earth's crust over the last 3.8 billion years
From 4.0 to 2.0 Gyrs ago, Fe could be considered one of the most common bio-essential elements required for the metabolic action of all living organisms [8, 11, 12, 14, 4649]. Today, the deficiency of this nutrient suggests it as a limiting factor for the development of marine phytoplankton and life on Earth [6, 8].
Elements such as Fe and Ni in the Earth’s protocrust had higher concentrations in the Hadean (4.5-3.8 Gyr ago) and Archean (3.8-2.5 Gyr ago) periods compared to the present values [4, 5, 8, 11, 12, 50-53]. The Si and Al concentrations instead were lower than they are today [3-5].
The estimated concentrations of Fe, Ni, Al, and Si in the Hadean and Archean Earth’s protocrust and in the Earth’s continental crust are reported in Fig. 3. The data for the Hadean period (4.5-3.8 Gyrs ago) are referred to the composition of Earth’s protocrust, considering the assumptions made by Foing [46] and by Taylor and McLennan [5]. According to these authors the Mars and Moon’s crusts are considered to be representative of the composition of the early Earth’s protocrust (Hadean Eon) [5, 46].
Fig. 3. The estimated concentrations of Fe, Ni, Al, and Si in the Hadean and Archean Earth’s protocrust and in the Earth’s continental crust are reported. The Archean Earth’s protocrust (3.8-2.5 Gyrs ago) had a less basaltic composition (Fe - 8 %, Ni - 0.8 %, Al - 7 %, Si - 26 %) [3-5, 15, 16, 25, 32, 54, 55] compared to the previous period (Hadean era, 4.5-3.8 Gyrs ago) [5, 40], and a less Sialic composition compared to the concentrations in the Earth’s continental crust today: Fe - 4 %, Ni -~ 0.01 %, Al - 8 %, Si - 28 % [3-5, 31, 55]. Considering piezonuclear reactions (1), (2), (4), the overall 12 % decrease in the heavier elements (Fe and Ni) is balanced by the Al and Si increases and assuming an increase in Mg, according to reaction (2), equal to that of Si over the last 4.5 billion years
In the same figure, for the Archean period (3.8-2.5 Gyrs ago) the data are referred to compositional analysis of Archean sediments [3-5, 15, 16, 25, 32, 54, 55]. For the last period from 2.5 Gyrs ago to today, the mass percentage concentrations of Fe, Ni, Al and Si are referred to the present composition of Earth’s continental crust [3-5, 25, 30, 55].
A clear transition from a more basaltic condition (high concentrations of Fe and Ni) to a Sialic one (high concentrations of Al and Si) can be observed during the life-time of our planet [3-5, 15, 16, 25, 31, 32, 47-56].
The most abrupt changes in element concentrations shown in Fig. 3 appear to be intimately connected to the tectonic activity of the Earth. The vertical drops in the concentrations of Fe and Ni, as well as the vertical jumps in the concentrations of Si and Al, 3.8 Gyrs ago, coincide with the time that many scientists have pointed out as the beginning of tectonic activity on the Earth. The subsequent abrupt transitions 2.5 Gyrs ago coincide with the period of the Earth’s largest tectonic activity [4, 5].
As shown in Fig. 3, the decrease in the mass concentration of iron and nickel is balanced by Al and Si increases and assuming an increase in Mg, according to reaction (2), equal to that of Si over the Earth’s lifetime. In the same figure, a total decrease of -7 % in Fe and Ni concentrations and a relative increase of -7 % in the lighter chemical element concentrations (Si, Mg and Al) between the Hadean period (Hadean Eon, 4.5-3.8 Gyrs ago) and the Archean period (Archean Eon, 3.8-2.5 Gyrs ago) is shown. Similarly, a decrease of -5 % in the heavier elements (Fe and Ni) and a related increase (-5 %) in the concentrations of lighter ones (Si, Mg and Al) can be considered between the Archean period (Archean Eon, 3.8-2.5 billion years ago) and more recent times (Fig. 3). The Earth’s protocrust in the Hadean era was strongly basaltic, with a composition similar to that of the proto-planets (chondrites) [5, 46].
In particular, piezonuclear reactions (1), (2), (4) seem to be the cause of the abrupt variations shown in Fig. 3. Piezonuclear reaction (2) implies that not only the Si mass percentage should increase overall by about 3.5 % but also that of Mg. However, the latter increase, due to piezonuclear reaction (2), cannot be revealed from geological data of sediments in the Earth’s continental crust. The most probable explanation is that Mg is not only a resulting element, as shown by piezonuclear reaction (2), but can also be considered as a starting element of another possible piezonuclear reaction [25]:
Mg224 ^ 2c62. (6)
Reaction (6) could be very important for the evolution of both the Earth’s crust and the atmosphere, and considered as a valid explanation for the high level of CO2 concentration (-15 %) in the Archean Earth’s atmosphere [57]. In addition, the large amount of C produced by Mg transformation (-3.5 % of the Earth’s crust) has undergone a slow but continuous diminishing in the CO 2 composition of the
Earth’s atmosphere, as a result of the escape which also involves other atmospheric gases like He and H [58].
Piezonuclear reaction (6) can also be put into correlation with the increase in seismic activity that has occurred over the last century [59]. Very recent evidence has shown CO2 emissions in correspondence to seismic activity [60]: significant changes in the diffuse emission of carbon dioxide were recorded in a geochemical station at El Hierro, in the Canary Islands, before the occurrence of several seismic events during the year 2004. Appreciable precursory CO2 emissions were observed to start before seismic events of relevant magnitude, and to reach their maximum values some days before the earthquakes [60].
Relation (6) is not the only piezonuclear reaction that involves Mg as a starting element. Like the considerations made for the concentrations of elements such as Fe, Ni, Al, and Si (Fig. 3), it is also possible to consider other elements such as Mg, Ca, Na, K, and O, which are envolved in other piezonuclear reactions that have been assumed to occur in the chemical evolution of the Earth’s crust.
The variations in mass percentage concentration for Mg, Ca, Na, K, and O in the Hadean and Archean Earth’s protocrust and in the Earth’s continental crust are reported in Fig. 4, analogously to Fig. 3 [3-5, 25, 61]. The decrease in the mass concentrations of Mg and Ca has been balanced by an increase in Na, K and O, during the Earth’s lifetime. In particular, between the Hadean (4.5-3.8 Gyrs ago) and the Archean era (3.8-2.5 Gyrs ago), and between the latter and more recent times, it is possible to observe an overall decrease of ~4.7 % for Mg and ~4 % for Ca. This decrease in the two alkaline-earth metals (Mg and Ca) seems to be nearly perfectly balanced by the increase in the concentrations of the two alkaline metals, Na and K (which have increased by 2.7 and 2.8 %, respectively), and by a total increase (-3 %) in O, which has varied from -44 to -47 % (the latter being the present oxygen concentration in the Earth’s crust) (Fig. 4).
From a close examination of the data reported in Fig. 4, it is possible to conjecture a series of piezonuclear fission reactions that could represent the real origin of the sharp fluctuations of these chemical elements in the evolution of the Earth’s crust:
Mg224 ^ Na23 + Hj,
Mg^ ^O86 + 4Hj + 4neutrons,
Ca20 ^ k399 + h1,
(7)
(8) (9)
Ca^Jj ^ 2O^6 + 4H} + 4 neutrons. (10)
In particular it can be noted that, considering piezo-nuclear reactions (7)-(10), an overall decrease in alkaline-earth metals (Mg and Ca) of about 8.7 % is balanced by an increase in Na, K, and O of -8.5 % (see Fig. 4). Taking into account a density of 3 600 kg/m3 and a thickness of 60 km for the Hadean and Archean crusts, it is possible to estimate the mass of the early Earth’s protocrust as ~ 1.08 • 1023 kg.
Fig. 4. The variations in mass percentage concentration for Mg, Ca, Na, K and O in the Hadean and Archean Earth’s protocrust and in the Earth’s continental crust. It can be noted in particular that, considering piezonuc-lear reactions (7)-( 10), the overall 8.7 % decrease in alkaline-earth metals (Mg and Ca) is balanced by the Na, K and O increase (-8.5 %) [25, 3-5, 56]
Considering this value, the decrease in Ca concentration, 1.3 % of the Hadean and Archean protocrust (~ 1.41 • 1021 kg), corresponds very closely to the mass of water in oceans (—1.35 •1021kg). In this way, reaction (10) could be considered responsible for the formation of oceans during the Earth’s lifetime.
In addition, other piezonuclear reactions involving Si and Al as starting elements and C, N, O, H, and He as resultants can be considered:
i 28 x 2n14 (11)
-d2 , O16 (12)
Siil ^ C62 + O8,
Sij4 ^ O86 + 2He2 + 2Hj + 2 neutrons, Al^7 ^ Cj2 + N74 +1 neutron.
(13)
(14)
Piezonuclear reactions (1)-(10) are those that have affected the evolution of the Earth’s crust over the last 4.5 billion years to the greatest extent. In particular, considering the data shown in Figs. 3 and 4, it can be noted that reactions (1), (2), (7)-(10) have been particularly recurrent and responsible for a variation of about 20 % in the chemical composition of the Earth’s crust. Piezonuclear reactions (11)-(14) have instead played a negligible role in the compositional variations of the Earth’s crust, but are of great importance as far as the increase in H, He, C, N and O
concentrations is concerned and for the evolution of the Earth’s atmosphere.
The piezonuclear fission reactions identified by the authors can be subdivided into two sets, considering the starting and resulting elements. In the first jump, the starting elements are Fe, Co and Ni, whereas the resulting elements are Mg, Al and Si as shown in reactions (1)-(5).
The reactions belonging to the second piezonuclear jump involve Mg, Al, Si and Ca as the starting elements, as well as C, N, O, H and He as the resulting elements (reactions
(6) (14)).
In short, two piezonuclear fission reaction jumps that are typical of the Earth’s crust can be recognized:
Fe26, Co27, Ni28 ^ Mg12, Al13> Si14 ^ C6> N7> °8-
These two piezonuclear jumps represent not only the compositional variations of the Earth’s crust over the last four billion years, but also reflect the chemical composition of the Earth from its internal nucleus to its external surface, and atmosphere: nucleus (Ni-Fe and Co alloys), mantle (Si-Mg), crust (Si-Al), and atmosphere (C, N, O).
4. Piezonuclear effects on the chemical evolution of the Earth’s atmosphere
4.1. Composition of the Earth s early atmosphere
Recent studies have revealed that not only the Earth’s crust, but also the Earth’s atmosphere [9, 10, 12], and the concentrations of the basic elements for the development of life in the oceans [8-12], have drastically changed over the Earth’s lifetime [1, 2, 3-5]. The origin and early evolution of oceans and atmospheres of terrestrial planets are classic unsolved problems in planetary sciences [60, 61]. H2O and CO2 were the two most abundant volatile species on the early surfaces of Earth, Venus and Mars, e.g., [11, 12, 56, 61, 62], while C, O and H are the most important elements for life on Earth today. CO2 and H2O-rich atmosphere of the early Earth (Archean period) has been envisaged and supported by recent studies [11, 12, 57]. Piezo-nuclear reactions (6)-(14) may be considered in order to explain the strong variations between the past and present composition of the Earth’s atmosphere. After the formation of oceans, the early athmosphere of the Earth was predominantly formed by carbon compounds (CO2 and CH4). The amount of carbon (~3.5 %), coming from piezonuclear reaction (6), spread into the early athmosphere implying an athmospheric pressure about 650 times greater than the present value [57].
The variations in the atmospheric composition over the Earth’s life time are reported in Fig. 5. After the early-Earth conditions, in which the primordial rarefied atmosphere was composed of H and He gases, it can be assumed that about 15 % of the Earth’s atmosphere was constituted by CO2 during the Archean period, whereas the remaining part was mainly composed of H2O and other minor components
(see Fig. 5). Considering the Earth’s present atmospheric composition, which is dominated by nytrogen (N - 78 %) and oxygen (O - 21 %), it is possible to conclude that great variations have affected the Earth’s atmosphere over the last 4.5 Gyrs.
4.2. Piezonuclear effects on greenhouse gases and the Earth's atmospheric evolution
Recent data have shown that CO2 and H2O concentrations increased dramatically between -3.8 and -2.5 Gyrs ago (Fig. 5) in correspondence to sporadic seismic activity and the subduction of the primordial plates. Successively, between -2.5 and -2.0 Gyrs ago, the rapid increase in N and O concentrations may be considered to be closely related to the largest formation of the Earth’s continental crust. The oxygen level, in fact, was very low during the Hadean and Archean eras (4.5-2.7 Gyrs ago), but increased sharply (Great Oxidation Event) between 2.7 and 2.4 billion years ago, until the present concentration ~21 % of the Earth’s atmosphere was reached, a 105-fold higher value than that of the oxygen concentration in the earlier atmosphere (Fig. 5).
During the same period (from 2.7 to 2.4 Gyrs ago), which represents 6 % of the Earth’s life-time (4.57 Gyrs), 50 % of the continental crustal volume formed in concomitance with the most intense tectonic and continental subduction activity. Considering this scenario approximately 2.0 Gyrs ago, it is also possible to justify the origin of the first aerobic bacteria and multicellular eukaryotic organisms, ancestors of animals and human beings. Considering the composition variations in the Earth’s athmosphere shown in Fig. 5, and the piezo-
Fig. 5. Variations in the atmospheric composition over the Earth’s life time. During the Archean era, about 15 % of the Earth’s atmosphere was constituted by CO2, and the remaining part was mainly composed of H2O. The Earth’s present atmospherical composition is dominated by
nytrogen (N - 78 %) and oxygen (O - 21 %) [3, 57, 61, 62]
Million years ago
Thousand years ago
Fig. 6. a — CO2 concentration in the Earth’s atmosphere over the last 500 million years. The trend shown in the plot has been determined considering the database reported by Royer [63] together with the results of some geochemical models developed between 2001 and 2004 [6468]; b — CO2 concentration in the Earth’s atmosphere over the last 4 • 105 years [69, 70]
nuclear fission reactions (6), (8), (10)-(14), it can be observed that the intense tectonic activity caused a sudden increase in CO2 and later in the O and N levels in the Earth’s atmosphere. While the O and N levels remained constant, the high CO 2 concentration, principally due to piezonuclear reaction (6), started to decrease 2.5 Gyrs ago (Fig. 5). This fact can be explained considering the planetary air leak of gaseous elements and molecules, such as H, He and CO2 that has affected the atmosphere during the Earth’s lifetime [58].
The continuous decrease in CO2 concentration over the last 3.5 Gyrs has recently been contrasted by Carbon Pollution. The carbon dioxide (CO2) variations over the last 500 million years (phanerozoic period) are reported in Fig. 6(a). The trend shown in the plot has been determined considering Royer’s database [63] together with the results of several geochemical models pertaining to CO2 variations [64-6 6]. The present CO 2 concentration in the Earth’s atmosphere is about 400 ppm, while 500 million years ago it was about 6000 ppm. Observing the phenomenon at that time scale, the increase that has occurred over the last 100 years, and which has been ascribed to carbon emissions from the industrial revolution, seems to be negligible.
In Fig. 6(b) it is possible to observe the carbon dioxide (CO2) variations over the last 4-105 years [67-69]. Today, some scientists sustain that, throughout the Twentieth Century, new forms of carbon pollution and the reactive nitrogen released into terrestrial environment by human activities (synthetic fertilizer, industrial use of ammonia) have been the only responsible for the dramatic increase in CO2 and N in the contemporary Earth’s atmosphere [11, 12, 70]. However, a strong doubt remains that much of these CO2 (about 3/4 of the total) and N (about 2/3 of the total) are provided by the same causes that have produced the previous cycles of carbon dioxide concentrations (Fig. 6(b)), and the nytrogen increase in the Archean atmosphere (Fig. 5) [57, 60].
5. Conclusions
The piezonuclear reactions, that have recently been discovered in the brittle failure of inert solids (gneiss) [17, 18], have been considered in order to interpret the most significant geophysical and geological evolutions, today still unexplained. Two piezonuclear fission reaction jumps that are typical of the Earth’s crust have been recognized. The first piezonuclear jump explains the large variations in the most abundant chemical elements (Fe, Si, Al) in the Earth’s crust during tectonic plate formation. The second piezo-nuclear jump provides consistent explanations for the high nytrogen level in the Earth’s present atmosphere, the Great Oxidation Event, and the high CO 2 level in the Archean atmosphere.
In addition, as shown by piezonuclear reactions (1), (2), the fundamental starting element in the first piezonuclear jump was iron. This element plays also a crucial role in the stellar thermonuclear fusion process of small and medium sized stars. Ferrum, in fact, is the heaviest element that is synthesized by thermonuclear fusion reactions before star collapse. This combustion product is the so-called “stellar ash” and is the material of which the proto-planets in the Solar System were formed and from which they may have evolved, through piezonuclear reactions, to a Sialic condition (see the case of the Earth). Similarly, the atmospheric elements (C, N, O, H, and He) can be considered as the “planetary ashes”. These gases are the results of the second piezonuclear jump and they have gradually escaped from Earth into space through the planetary air leak [58].
Finally, through experimental and theoretical studies of neutron emission and piezonuclear fission reactions from brittle fracture, it will also be possible to explore new and fascinating application fields, such as: (i) short-term prediction and monitoring of earthquakes, (ii) realistic evaluation of the natural emission of black carbon and CO2, with their effects on global pollution, (iii) production of neutrons for medical use in cancer therapy, (iv) disposal of radioactive waste, (v) hypothetical production of clean nuclear energy.
Acknowledgements
The authors have not been financially supported by any specific grant or agency for the research work reported in the present paper. However, they would like to anticipatedly acknowledge any form of support to further future studies in the same directions.
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nocTynnna b pe^aKunro 14.06.2011 r.
CeedeHun 06 aemopax
Carpinteri Alberto, Prof., Politecnico di Torino, alberto.carpinteri@polito.it
Manuello Bertetto Amedeo, Dr. Phd., Assistant Professor, Politecnico di Torino, amedeo.manuellobertetto@polito.it
