CC BY
0AN EXAMINATION OF SOCIAL REFORMS BY DRACO AND SOLON IN
ANCIENT ATHENS
Sayed Jamil "Rezaee"
Assistant Professor Department of General History, Faculty of Social Sciences
Abstract: The civilization of ancient Greece has always attracted the attention of historians and civilization scholars due to its significant influence on the course of world history and civilization. The establishment of city-states is one of the defining characteristics of Greek civilization. Among these city-states, Athens holds a prominent position in terms of social transformations and reforms that brought about fundamental changes not only in Athens but throughout all Greek city-states. It played a crucial role as a model in ancient Greece within the social system. The factors leading to these reforms can be found in the context of social transformations prior to this event, interactions with other civilizations, the characteristics of the Athenian city-state, Solon's programs and reforms, and the evolution of social interactions within this city-state. This article aims to analyze these factors using a descriptive-analytical method. Based on the research findings, favorable conditions in the city-states, interactions with other civilizations, and the readiness for accepting reforms in society enabled Draco and Solon to implement such social reforms in the Athenian city-state, making it socially superior to all other Greek city-states.
Keywords: Greece, Athens, reforms, Solon, Draco.
Introduction
Greece, located in southeastern Europe, has been home to some of the highest civilizations for centuries, with Athens being its current capital and a beacon of freedom across all domains, particularly in social matters, surpassing all other Greek city-states. In the seventh century BC, Athens was ripe for significant transformations due to population growth and wealth concentration in the hands of a small group. During this period, mass assemblies were recognized, and the government acknowledged and legalized the privileges that existed among different classes at that time. Nevertheless, social unrest and conflicts had begun to emerge, creating an urgent need for a legislator. Thus, Draco was appointed in 621 BC to establish new regulations and codify a legal system to restore order in Attica. However, Draco's harsh reforms, which adhered to the same aristocratic system, did not significantly diminish the power of the aristocracy. Athens was on the brink of civil war; therefore, a wise reformer was sought to manage a peaceful revolution in Athens' civil system. That person was Solon, who gained the trust of all conflicting factions. Solon implemented fundamental reforms that laid the groundwork for a stable democracy in
Athens. His reforms were characterized by profound insight and foresight that lasted until Aristotle's time. The question arises: what factors facilitated the emergence and social transformation of the Athenian city-state? Which individuals were instrumental in initiating and institutionalizing these changes? Alongside this issue, it is essential to inquire which individuals played a significant role in the social transformations during this period in Athens. What impact did the establishment of social laws have on their social life? The aim of this research is to answer these questions by reviewing the social transformations in the Athenian city-state during the era of Draco and Solon from 621 BC to 560 BC. The significance of this research lies in Athens' ability among numerous city-states to implement social reforms that not only affected Athens but also encompassed all Athenian city-states, reflecting strong ideas and capable planners. This study employs a descriptive-analytical method and seeks to utilize primary sources as much as possible while drawing on valuable research available. Among the sources referenced are Will Durant's "The Story of Civilization," Thucydides' "The History of the Peloponnesian War," A. Kagan's "A History of Ancient Greece," Don Nardo's "Ancient Greece," as well as work
Ancient Athens
The cities of Attica not only surrounded Athens but were also dependent on it. The city of Athens emerged from the expansion of the acropolis constructed by ancient Mycenaeans, where landowners from Attica settled. Power in this city belonged to ancient families and large landowners. Other citizens acted according to orders and commands issued by them (Durant, 1991, Vol. 2, p. 129).
Athens was the wealthiest and largest city-state in Greece, where its citizens enjoyed a democratic government (Motai, 2018, p. 45). In ancient Greece, particularly in the city-state of Athens, which played a crucial role in the social transformations of this civilization, it is quite interesting to note that the Greeks seemingly did not favor large monarchies or vast empires; instead, they preferred small states, known today as city-states, where each city had its own independent government. In ancient Greece, there were small republican governments centered around the city, with numerous villages and farms providing food for the urban population considered part of their territory. These city-states did not have kings but were governed by wealthy citizens, with very little to no involvement from ordinary and middle-class individuals. Additionally, there were many slaves who had no rights to participate in governance, and women also lacked rights. Consequently, only a portion of the inhabitants of these city-states were considered citizens with rights and could vote and express opinions on public matters. This situation ultimately created difficulties for the aristocrats and rulers, compelling them to implement a series of reforms in the city-states, which can be clearly observed in Athens (Javaher-Lal, 2007, p. 47).
As long as their rule was secure, the country was governed in a feudal manner. When a city-state faced turmoil, they would accept the authority of a king. However, due to the insecurities that arose in Athens, they decided that after King Codrus, no one else was worthy of succession, and instead of a king, they chose an archon for life (Durant, 2012, vol. 2, pp. 129-130).
In Athens, nine archons were elected by the aristocracy and were considered representatives of supreme executive power. The archons limited their term from life to ten years and then further reduced it to one year, subsequently dividing power among themselves (Javaher-Lal, 2011, vol. 2, p. 122).
Athens was composed of different classes which were politically divided into three groups: the cavalry class who owned horses and were prepared for cavalry warfare; the farmers who each owned two oxen and were ready to form heavy infantry; and the mercenary workers who constituted the light infantry. Economically, the inhabitants of Athens were also divided into three classes: the first class consisted of aristocrats who lived in luxury in cities while their slaves and laborers worked their lands; the second class included artisans, merchants, and free workers who ranked below the aristocrats in wealth (Poladi, 2003, p. 17).
Most workers were free individuals, while slaves constituted a small minority; the poorest class among workers were the peasants. These were small farmers who had to struggle with the oppression of landowners and usurers and were content with merely possessing a small piece of land (Durant, 2012, vol. 2, p. 129).
Social, political, and economic transformations led the city-state of Athens to experience various systems. When the Greeks felt the impacts of colonial movements, their system underwent tension and change. The transition from land dependence to trade and money disrupted the existing balance between the common people and the aristocrats and led to the emergence of a new class: the merchants. This new class sought participation in governance and engaged in political struggles against large landowners and aristocrats. On the other hand, population growth created conflicts of interest between farmers and landowners due to land distribution issues, leading farmers to fall into debt with landowners and usurers, which ultimately resulted in the enslavement of entire families. In this chaotic situation in Athens, reforms were necessary to establish laws and organize social justice and relative balance among social classes to stabilize the political and economic systems (Delpak, 2017, p. 119).
An essential factor that perhaps served as a fundamental principle for the expansion of Greek civilization, particularly in Athens, was its interaction with other civilizations such as Crete, Egypt, and the Near East. These interactions held significant importance in this regard.
According to Will Durant, "Greece learned from Egypt, and when the fervor of life was exhausted, it breathed its last in the embrace of Egypt." On the other hand, they learned navigation, the use of the alphabet, and paper from the Phoenicians. These connections led to social transformations, which in turn created the groundwork for social reforms in Athens (Morshidloo, 2004, p. 70).
The reforms introduced by Solon stimulated personal talents and disregarded lineage; he was able to lay the foundation of a civil society with his new reforms and guarantee freedom and equality for various social classes (Sheybani, 1968, p. 175). To cultivate the social spirit of the people, Solon granted all Athenians the right to vote and entrusted the judiciary to the citizens. He replaced the previous political and economic system with a new one, liberating individuals from the stringent bonds of family, tribal, and religious affiliations for the first time. He even made these laws public so that people would adhere to them. Although Solon could not entirely diminish the power of the aristocracy or put an end to the class conflicts that plagued Athens (Delpak, 2017, p. 120).
After 750 BC, Athens experienced all forms of government, and it is from this time onward that we know significant details about its history. The initial monarchy gradually gave way to an aristocratic government that took control of the city-state of Athens in the seventh and early sixth centuries BC. By 500 BC, the aristocratic government yielded power to influential figures, some of whom were nobles and others wealthy commoners. The most notable among these influential figures was Solon. When the city-state of Athens faced a social and economic crisis, the other influential figures entrusted complete authority to Solon (Adler, 2005, Vol. 1, p. 127).
Solon's reforms brought about three significant changes:
First, he ended the enslavement of people who could not pay their debts.
Second, the lands of individuals who had lost their property due to debt were returned to them.
Third, he rewrote the laws to humanize them (Rasai, 2009, p. 151).
Solon established limits for social classes and paved the way for democracy in Athens. In fact, without him, Athens would have been far from avoiding a civil war and complete destruction, and it would not have been able to achieve democracy and the golden age of the following century. However, Solon created a balance between social classes and granted fundamental rights even to lower classes, instilling a sense of responsibility in citizens (Abdulrahimzadeh, 2016, p. 92).
Solon, who had introduced reforms at the behest of the people of Athens, spent ten years away from Greece. Perhaps his primary reason for traveling was his curiosity, while another reason was to avoid being compelled to revoke his reforms. The people of Athens could not annul his reforms because they remained loyal to
him; thus, during his ten-year absence, they preserved these reforms, which itself attests to their value (Herodotus, p. 44).
Conclusion
The dire and critical situation in Greece, particularly in Athens during the seventh century, had created such turmoil that the occurrence of a civil war was not unlikely. The aristocrats, whose greed had entangled them in these circumstances, were the cause of these events. They needed social reforms to escape this predicament and prevent a catastrophic crisis. Consequently, the nobles and aristocrats agreed to implement social reforms and change the laws to achieve the satisfaction of the people. They appointed a figure named Draco to bring about these reforms. However, Draco's reforms failed to meet the demands of Athenian society because he himself was an aristocrat who favored their interests while imposing harsh regulations on the common people. Although his measures temporarily pacified the populace, it wasn't long before they rejected these reforms due to the poor social conditions.
To bring about social reforms, another individual named Solon was chosen, and he was granted full authority. Unlike Draco, Solon introduced significant reforms in Athens. The groundwork for these reforms can be traced back to the preceding developments before Solon's time, during which both Draco and others had failed to address the needs of Athenian society. Solon's social reforms can be viewed from various perspectives: the diminishing powers of the aristocracy, the involvement of ordinary citizens in governance, the motivation and encouragement of different classes—which heralded social progress—freed those who had been enslaved due to unpaid debts, and even mandated that the state cover the costs for those who had been taken as slaves outside of Athens to return home. Lands that individuals had lost over time due to indebtedness were restored to them.
Solon also introduced fundamental reforms regarding marriage, inheritance from deceased persons, rights of testament, privacy violations, and neglect in social matters that could even lead to the loss of citizenship. He abolished grand festivals and massive sacrifices and prohibited lamentation practices. Through his new reforms, he laid the foundation for a civil society and guaranteed freedom and equality for various social classes. In fact, to foster the social spirit of the people, Solon granted all Athenians the right to vote, liberating individuals from the stringent bonds of family, tribal, and religious affiliations for the first time.
After introducing reforms at the behest of the people of Athens, Solon spent ten years away from Greece. His primary reason for traveling was his curiosity, while another reason was to avoid being compelled to revoke his reforms. The people of Athens could not annul his reforms because they remained loyal to him; thus, during his ten-year absence, they preserved these reforms.
Sources:
1. Adler, Philip G. 2005. *Civilizations of the World*. Tehran: Amir Kabir Publishing.
2. Aristotle. 1991. *The Politics of Athens*. Translated by Ebrahim Bastani Parizi. Tehran: Joint Stock Company.
3. Berger, A. and Others. 2011. *History of Ancient World*. Translated by Engineer Sadegh Ansari and Friends. Volume 2. Tehran: Ferdows Publishing.
4. Poladi, Kamal. 2003. *History of Political Thought in the West*. Tehran: Center Publishing.
5. Durant, Will. 2012. *Ancient Greece*. Translated by Amir Hossein Aryanpour and Others. Tehran: Scientific and Cultural Publishing Company.
6. Rassi, Dan and Others. 2009. *Civilization and Culture of the World*. Translated by Abdolhossein Azarneg. Tehran: Sokhan Publishing.
7. Sheibani, Nizam al-Din. 1968. *History of Civilization from the Beginning of Creation to Material Civilization*. Tehran: Amir Kabir Publishing.
8. Abdolrahimzadeh, Seyyed Nematollah. *Fundamental Western Studies*, Research Institute for Humanities and Cultural Studies. Year 7, Issue 1, Spring and Summer 2016.
9. Scientific-Research Journal of Historical Studies. Year 12, Summer 2017, Issue 47.
10. Group of Authors. 2007. *History of the World*. Translated by Abdolrahman Sadriyeh. Tehran: Ferdows Publishing.
11. Morshedloo, Javad. *An Examination of Dynamic Features in Ancient Greek Civilization*. Year 6, Summer 2004, Issue 19.
12. Motie, Hossein. 2018. *Encyclopedia of World History*. Tehran: Booktab Publishing.
13. Nardo, Don. 2008. *Ancient Greece*. Translated by Mehdi Haghighatkhah. Tehran: Ghoghnoos Publishing.
14. Nardo, Don. 2004. *Greece*. Translated by Fatemeh Shadab. Tehran: Ghoghnoos Publishing.
15. Nehru, Jawaharlal. 2007. *A Glimpse into World History*. Translated by Mahmoud Tafazzoli. Tehran: Amir Kabir Publishing.
16. Herodotus. 2001. *The Histories of Herodotus*. Translated by Hadi Hedayati. Tehran: University of Tehran Press.
