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УДК 342.61(73)
UDC 342.61(73)
А.П. АЛЕКСАНДРОВА
и.о. зав.кафедрой английской филологии, кандидат филологических наук, доцент, Орловский государственный университет E-mail: arnold71@inbox.ru Д.П. АЛЕКСАНДРОВА
магистр прикладной этики, Орловский государственный университет E-mail: arnold71@inbox.ru
A.P. ALEXANDROVA
Acting Head of the Department of English Philology, Candidate of Philology, associate professor, Orel State
University E-mail: arnold71@inbox.ru D.P. ALEXANDROVA Master of Applied Ethics,Orel State University E-mail: arnold71@inbox.ru
АМЕРИКАНСКИЕ КОНВЕНТЫ В ПЕРИОД ПРЕЗИДЕНТСКИХ ВЫБОРОВ THE U.S. CONVENTIONS DURING THE PRESIDENTIAL ELECTION
В статье рассматриваются американские конвенты в период президентских выборов. Вкратце описывается сама система конвентов, их основная задача и работа, их особенности и преимущества в свете президентских выборов.
Ключевые слова: конвенция, выборы, президентские выборы, первичные выборы, «кокусы», «соломенные выборы», голосование, коллегия выборщиков.
The article deals with the U.S. conventions during the presidential election. It throws some light on the system of conventions, their main task and work, their peculiarities and advantages in connection with the presidential election.
Keywords: convention, election, presidential campaign, preliminaries, caucuses, "straw elections", voting, the Electoral College.
National conventions can impress a random mixture of drama, boredom, and frivolity on many U.S. and foreign viewers. One of Americanjournalists Theodore White wrote that national party conventions are a political phenomenon, incomprehensible to most foreigners, and many Americans. Being a purely American and unique, it was not taken from textbooks on political theory and was not invented by a vet philosopher.
American convention system basically derives from the constitutionally prescribed separation of legislative and executive powers. In parliamentary democracies, such as Great Britain and Canada, the legislative and executive power is concentrated in the national legislature, and the main function of party congresses is to discuss and formulate the government policy. Only in rare cases Party Congress has to elect a party leader, who could become prime minister in the future.
In the United States, the main task of the convention, its true purpose is to nominate candidates for the posts of President and Vice President, who will take over the executive power in the country. In addition, the presidential candidate is in charge of a four-year general party leadership and has got an overall control over the party apparatus. It is assumed that the candidate, if elected, will build its policy in accordance with the party platform, officially expressing its general principles and objectives. However, U.S. President has complete independence and freedom in making decisions that may correspond the party platform, but may diverge from it.
The national convention is, in a physical sense, the
only occasion when representatives of state organizations come together and interact as parts of the same party. For thousands of party leaders and members, the national convention is the main campaign rally for the party. They have a common "enemy" (the opposing party's presidential candidate) to work against and a common leader to rally behind. [White 1989:99]
In general, the judgment about the convention system depends on the caliber of the individuals it has nominated. Sometimes rather mediocre people such as Warren G. Harding, Franklin Pierce, James Buchanan, and William Henry Harrison were prophesied and then elected as Presidents. But the same system nominated Woodrow Wilson, Theodore Roosevelt, Franklin Roosevelt and Abraham Lincoln - people who won universal recognition as outstanding leaders in the history of the United States.
The system of national political conventions that appeared in the 1830s became strong in outline in both leading parties. Political party conventions perform a number of tasks. They generally meet every four years, several months in advance of a presidential election. The modern convention meets over several days to achieve various procedural and political goals. Leaders compose and approve the party platform, a policy statement including "planks," or specific proposals, on which the party's candidates run, as well as set rules for party procedure. In addition, leaders use the convention to address the party en masse. Minor figures are often given the opportunity to address the convention during the day while most delegates are in meetings; evening addresses, however, are heavily
© А.П. Александрова, Д.П. Александрова © A.P. Alexandrova, D.P. Alexandrova
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publicized and often delivered by major figures. The keynote speaker is often selected to fulfill some symbolic or political goal. For example, Zell Miller, a Democratic senator from Georgia endorsed George W. Bush at the 2004 Republican convention for president based on his national security credentials. Often a party's rising stars are chosen to deliver prominent addresses. Two such speakers between 1988 and 2004 - Bill Clinton and Barack Obama - were subsequently nominated as presidential candidates in their own right. The most visible and historically important task of the convention is the nomination of that party's candidates for president and vice president.
Conventions are composed of delegates, apportioned among various state and territorial party organizations. Delegates vote for presidential and vice presidential nominees and on other procedural matters. Since the early 1970s, delegates of the two major parties have generally been bound to follow the results of state caucuses or primaries when they vote for candidates. Therefore, the identity of each party's eventual nominee is often known weeks or even months before the conventions begin; primaries have historically been held over several months during the first half of the year, and the conventions not until late summer. The events themselves have increasingly become mere formalities, serving primarily as publicized launching pads for the final weeks of the presidential campaign. [The Princeton Encyclopedia 554-555]
Today, thousands of men and women flock to each convention city by airplane, train, bus, and automobile. A few thousand are officials and delegates. Many are newspaper, magazine, and television reporters. Others are members of news teams from throughout the world. The convention hall is filled with flags, posters, streamers, and banners. Red, white, and blue colours are everywhere. Television equipment and wires can be seen throughout the hall. The delegates are seated by states on the main floor. Thousands of people watch and wait to take part in the convention. [White 1989:99-100]
Each party special committee starts choosing a suitable city for the convention. Theses party committees start doing it in advance, about two years before this special mission. The selection of host cities for the national conventions is very important to the parties. Each party seeks a host city whose state and citizens would welcome the convention. A host city must have a large convention center and provide attractions for the delegates. Another important factor for site selection of the party's convention is the preference of the current President. For example, New Orleans, Louisiana, was selected as the site for the 1988 Republican convention. The Democrats chose Atlanta, Georgia as their 1988 Convention site [White 1989:101]. Thus appropriate space and a comfortable hotel, size of local financial support and various political considerations - all these affect the commission's choice. The decision to hold the Democratic Party convention of 1984 in San Francisco was caused by the fact that California became the country's most populous state. Similarly, the Republicans' choice fell on Dallas as Texas was a fast-growing state with a large number of voters. National party committee is a permanent body,
acting on behalf of the party in the periods between the conventions; it approves or rejects the offered choice of the city. This committee produces the official declaration of the convening of the convention, determines the distribution of delegates between the states, makes a temporary list of delegates and alternate members of the delegation with an advisory vote, and recommends a group of managers to perform various ceremonial and administrative functions at the convention. All these activities, however, are the subject to review and approval by the convention. Being a creature of the national convention, the national party committee is completely under its control.
During the week before the opening of the convention, a number of important meetings are usually held, in particular, the program, credentials and regulatory commissions. The Programme Commission listens to individuals' offers and offers of representatives of group interests. Credentials Committee resolves disputes concerning the credentials of the delegates of the states where the questions about the validity of the mandates of supporters of the rival candidates arise. The National Committee may meet to consider the problems connected with the rules of procedure.
The convention lasts four days, Monday to Thursday. With the advent of the television network covering the whole country, almost all meetings of the convention are appointed for the evening to allow the maximum number of viewers keep track of what is happening there. Work of the four day congress usually distributes as follows:
The first day. National Chairman of the party officially opens the convention, whose members then voted for the list of officers recommended by the National Committee. The chairman or another respected party leader, often one of the leading members of the Congress, speaks introductory word. The most important part of the day is the first report of the Credentials Committee, confirming the authority of delegates from each state, with the subsequent vote in case of a dispute about the validity of their powers.
The second day. Convention approves the reports of its major commissions. Members of the Congress discuss the party program, offer to replace some of its provisions and vote for its adoption.
The third day. Tension and excitement reach their climax when the delegations begin to nominate candidates for President. After all the candidates have been placed in nomination and the second speeches have been made, the voting begins. The roll call of the state delegations is announced in alphabetical order, beginning with Alabama. Each state may propose its own candidate, support its nominate, cede its turn to another state or temporarily abstain. After the announcement of the names of all candidates begins ballot in which all states alternately are called in alphabetical order again. All candidates of the Republican Party, since 1948, and all candidates of the Democratic Party, since 1952, have been elected as a result of the first round of voting. But if the first ballot, with every individual delegate's vote counted, fails to give an overall majority to any candidate, a second ballot is held, then if necessary a third. One convention, long ago, needed thirty-four inconclusive ballots before it at last produced an
overall majority, but in modern times, with the background of the opinion polls as well as the primaries, such a deadlock would be most unlikely. [Bromhead 1995:72] Very often the candidate, seeing that he has no chance of winning, frees delegates from the obligation to support him and thereby enables them to give their voices to another candidate. Once the party's candidate for the presidency has been chosen, the convention has three more tasks: to prepare and agree a statement of the party's policy, or 'platform'; to choose its candidate for the vice-presidency; and to proclaim its unity behind the candidates and their platform.
The fourth day. The platform needs to be vague enough to avoid annoyance to any of the sectional interests whose support the party hopes to get. The choice of a vice-president candidate is an anticlimax. [Bagby 1995:292] The new presidential candidate nominates his vice-presidential running-mate for the convention to acclaim. He usually takes a day or so of thought and consultation before making his proposal, which is likely to be a person who has a substantial independent basis of support within the party. [Bromhead 1995:72] He often convinces one of the opponents, a defeated rival, differing from the elect by his style and views, to run with him. Sometimes more attention is given to such political factors than to qualifications for the presidency. This tactical decision is caused by the presidential candidate's striving to seek broader support in the upcoming pre-election campaign. Delegates as a rule support the choice made by a presidential candidate, put forward a candidacy proposed by him and vote for it. Between the conventions and November the campaign is between the two parties, now each united against the other in support of its pair of candidates, who campaign all over the country themselves - still sometimes using the traditional campaign railway trains. Expenditure at this stage is limited by law, and partly financed by public funds.
The atmosphere in which all the work of the convention takes place resembles a carnival to many viewers. The congress delegates usually wear badges, hats, belts and other garments, identifying them with the state to which they belong, and posters with the names and portraits of their candidates. The election of a candidate usually causes a burst of enthusiasm. The whole convention goes wild in a tremendous demonstration, and the successful candidate appears at the rostrum to acknowledge the applause. Applauses last several minutes. Enthusiastic delegates wave flags and banners, orchestras play and hundreds of colorful air balls come down from the ceiling. When order is restored the victor makes an acceptance speech, thoughtfully written in advance. All this creates a colorful spectacle, but it does not mean that the delegates concern about their role without proper seriousness. Delegates are party activists, who work in their electoral districts for months, organize meetings, and agitate for their candidates and often themselves seek election to any elective office in places in government. National Convention is the climax in a tense election campaign, giving delegates an opportunity to 'shake things up on people' after a tiring work.
In the U.S.A. the presidential election campaign starts earlier than one year before the conventions, with a series
of so-called "straw elections" which anticipatory explore the opinions of voters by polling conducted by party staff functionaries. Fred Wertheimer1, the president of the organization "Common Cause"2 serving to protect the interests of citizens, said about the "straw elections" they are purely artificial activities related to the collection of funds to the party funds, but they largely contribute to the process of selecting candidates for Presidency.
However, the campaign starts to gain momentum only in the beginning of the year of the presidential election: the party organizations in each state start selecting delegates to their conventions. There are two ways for selecting delegates: (1) through the primary election in which voters of this state vote for the person in the list of candidates for delegates, which will subsequently vote for the candidate for Presidency they like most of all, or (2) by "caucuses" which are pre-election meetings of the party supporters, when they gather in groups for selecting delegates to the national party convention. And in some cases, the delegates are required to vote for a particular candidate, and in others the delegates are given freedom to vote on their own discretion.
It should be noted that the primary presidential elections are mainly of two kinds. In one case, voters submit their vote directly for the one who, in their opinion, should be the presidential candidate. In another case, they elect only delegates to the convention, which, in turn, may be bound or not bound by the obligation to vote for a particular candidate. If primaries make delegates vote for a particular candidate at the convention, state laws determine the number of rounds of voting, after which delegates are exempted from this obligation. In some cases, presidential primaries have proven to be decisive. For example, the victory of John Kennedy over Hubert Humphrey in the West Virginia primary in 1960 showed that a Catholic could win in a Protestant state, and this enabled him to get the nomination. Also the increase in the number of states holding primaries from seventeen in 1968 to thirty-eight in 1992 made them more decisive. [Bagby 1995:291]
The Iowa caucuses are particular important since they represent the start of the presidential campaign, usually in February of the election year. Iowa is psychologically important, since the media will focus on which candidates do well, labeling them the "front-runners". However, in 1980, George Bush did well in Iowa, but lost to Ronald Reagan in the New Hampshire primary. Reagan's poor showing in Iowa was soon forgotten as he proceeded to secure the nomination. Iowa's significance was diminished in 1992, since its own Democratic senator, Tom Harkin, was victorious (he had little opposition from other Democrats). [Elowitz 1992:77-78]
At a time when there is a selection of delegates, private organizations poll estimate the correlation of candidates' forces based on sensing sentiment on the local, regional and national levels. It is particularly important for candidates to achieve good results in those states where the first "caucuses" or primaries are held, for example, in Iowa and New Hampshire).The success achieved in these states, gives the candidate a great advantage, creating the impression that the man, ahead of his rivals, has all chances
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to get the support of the convention. This very impression if it is shared widely tells on the results of public polls, which are the most commonly reported by all media, and it further improves the chances of success.
Polls and reports in newspapers and magazines, on radio and television continue with increasing intensity from the moment of closing conventions of Democratic and Republican parties until the day of the general elections to be held on the first Tuesday after the first Monday in November. The work of organizations on opinion research and of media organizations at this stage of the campaign becomes easier than in the period preceding the party conventions. The number of applicants for the post of President is reduced to two (although some candidates from the third party can attract quite a lot of attention), their political platforms are marked more clearly.
In other respects, the task becomes more difficult. Newspapers and magazines, television and radio are aware that they must maintain a balance in their reports on the candidates of both parties, so that they could not be accused of partiality to one or the other. Likewise, the organizations on public poll which reputation depends on the accuracy of their estimates of the mood in the country usually interrogate more people and ask more questions than during the primary elections and meetings.
Even in this age of widely developed broadcasting contenders for the presidency try to overtake as many states for personal interaction with voters as possible. An opportunity to see the candidate, to say a few words to him or to shake hands with him is considered very useful in political standpoint on the national, state, and local level. In 1960, the Republican candidate Richard Nixon during his unsuccessful campaign versus John F. Kennedy visited all fifty states. He was and still remains the only candidate for Presidency who put this record.
In 1960, Nixon and Kennedy for the first time in the history of campaigns performed for American viewers in four political debates. Many political observers believe that namely these debates ultimately ensured Kennedy his victory on election. As a junior senator from Massachusetts, at the time he was not so well known in the country as Nixon, who had finished his second term as Vice-president when Dwight Eisenhower was the U.S. President. After 16 years again such a debate was held between President Gerald Ford and Democratic challenger Jimmy Carter. The following debate was between Carter and Republican candidate Ronald Reagan.
In 1974 Congress passed a law providing partial funding from federal funds to cover the costs of election campaigns for the primary presidential elections. This law also provides full funding of presidential elections from federal funds and authorizes donations for organizing the party conventions. Appointed party candidate spends millions of dollars received as federal grants and collected in the form of private donations, covering the costs of advertising, maintaining state employees and other expenses of the campaign.
On the day of the general election American voters go to the polling places to elect a President, Vice President, members of Congress and officials to state and local
governments. According to the established tradition residents of the town Diksville Notch in New Hampshire are the first to vote in the country. They start voting immediately after midnight, so that their choice is brought to the attention of the country on radio and television long before the opening of the polling places elsewhere.
Voting continues throughout the day. Partial or final results are announced on radio and television as they come. As the country covers several areas of zone time, the final results about the election on the East Coast become known to West coastal voters who haven't voted yet. In this regard, there have been proposals repeatedly not to disclose the voting results until the close of all polling stations in the country - from east to west.
A characteristic feature of American political life, anywhere in the world which has no precedent, is that the result of a nationwide vote formally doesn't determine the winner of the election; this question is determined by a vote of electors. The number of electors in each state equals the number of congressmen and senators, representing the state in both houses of Congress. The presidential candidate who receives the majority of even the most insignificant of the vote in the state gets all the electoral votes of that state. Since the Electoral College consists of 538 members, a candidate needs 270 votes for winning.
Members of the Electoral College vote at home, in the capitals of the fifty states and in the District of Columbia (Washington) approximately in six weeks after the general election, and the results of this vote are approved by the plenary session of both houses of Congress in early January. Only after this the election of President becomes official. The inauguration ceremony of the newly elected or re-elected president is always held on the steps of the Capitol in Washington on the 20th of January, next year after the election. By this time, everything that happened at the convention in the summer remains only a vague playback and the administration of both parties start discussing the plans for the following conventions.
The wisdom of choosing party candidates in national conventions has been questioned. When conventions originated in the 1830s they were more democratic than previous methods of choosing candidates. Recently a demand has arisen to make the process of choosing party candidates even more democratic and give ordinary citizens more voice in their selection. Some want a nation-wide primary to give all party members an opportunity to elect one out of two or three candidates nominated by conventions. A majority of the people favor this reform. [Bagby 1995:292] Despite the apparent randomness of national conventions, their main advantage is their flexibility. They determine their own rules and can change them every four years. Over the past decade they have proven their ability to adapt to new requirements and changing atmosphere. Due to it conventions not only confirmed their viability, but were able to benefit from such innovations as the introduction of primary election and the emergence of a network of radio and television.
Another advantage of the conventions is that they provide the opportunity for new people to run for office
party leaders and to seek election for the President rather quickly. As a result, conventions can conduct a candidate for President of the so-called "dark horses" that are little-known political figures, or people who do not qualify for this role, but enjoy great popularity in the country. This system is brought to the forefront of political life people like Charles Evans Hughes3, Woodrow Wilson4, Wendell Willkie5 and Adlai Stevenson6. All of them were either new to the political arena, or did not express their intention to seek election to the presidency.
In recent decades, the conventions have become little more than publicity events. In 2008, for example,
Democratic nominee Barack Obama chose to deliver his acceptance speech to the general public in a football stadium, rather than solely to the party delegates in the convention hall. For this reason, the conventions have come under increasing criticism, particularly since both major parties receive public aid to fund the events.
Even the most ardent advocates of this system do not undertake to say that it is perfect or can be perfect. Its disadvantages as well as advantages ultimately derive from the larger political system, which it is part of it. Criticism of the conventions will continue, as will continue and the system itself.
Comments
1 Fredric Michael "Fred" Wertheimer (born January 9, 1939) is an American attorney, lobbyist, and activist notable for his work on campaign finance reform and other government integrity, transparency, and accountability issues.
2 Common Cause is a non-profit, liberal advocacy organization based in Washington, D.C. It was founded in 1970 by Republican John W. Gardner, the former Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare in the administration of President Lyndon Johnson, a Democrat. The group was created to serve as a citizens' lobby to establish greater transparency and accountability in U.S. political institutions. Common Cause has offices in 36 states, and is funded by contributions and membership fees from its nearly 400,000 members.
3Charles Evans Hughes, Sr. (April 11, 1862 - August 27, 1948) was an American statesman, lawyer and Republican politician from New York. He served as the 36th Governor of New York , Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States , United States Secretary of State , a judge on the Court of International Justice , and the 11th Chief Justice ofthe United States . He was the Republican candidate in the 1916 U.S. Presidential election, losing narrowly to Woodrow Wilson. Hughes was a professor in the 1890s, a staunch supporter of Britain's New Liberalism, an important leader of the progressive movement of the 20th century, a leading diplomat and New York lawyer in the days of Harding and Coolidge, and was known for being a swing voter when dealing with cases related to the New Deal in the 1930s.
4 Wendell Lewis Willkie (/February 18, 1892 - October 8, 1944) was a corporate lawyer in the United States and a dark horse who became the Republican Party nominee for president in 1940. A member of the liberal wing of the party, he crusaded against those domestic policies of the New Deal that he thought were inefficient and anti-business. Willkie, an internationalist, needed the votes of the large isolationist element, so he waffled on the bitterly debated issue of America's role in World War II, losing support from both sides. His opponent Franklin D. Roosevelt won the 1940 election with 55% of the popular vote and 85% of the electoral vote. Afterward, Roosevelt found Willkie to be compatible politically with his plans and brought him aboard as an informal ambassador-at-large. He was the last nominee of either of the two major U.S. political parties to have never held elected or appointed office.
5 Thomas Woodrow Wilson (December 28, 1856 - February 3, 1924) was the 28th President ofthe United States from 1913 to 1921. With the Republican Party split in 1912, he led his Democratic Party to win control of both the White House and Congress for the first time since Grover Cleveland's victory in 1892.
Wilson persuaded a Democratic Congress to pass a liberal legislative agenda, unparalleled until the New Deal in 1933. This agenda included the Federal Reserve Act, Federal Trade Commission Act, the Clayton Antitrust Act, the Federal Farm Loan Act and an income tax. Child labor was curtailed by the Keating - Owen Act of 1916, but the U.S. Supreme Court declared it unconstitutional in 1918. Wilson also facilitated passage of the Adamson Act, which imposed an 8-hour workday for railroads. Wilson was a modern liberal visionary President, although he shared contemporary widespread racism toward blacks. Wilson tolerated and allowed his Cabinet to racially segregate federal employees and the Navy.
An intellectual with a mastery of political language, Wilson was a highly effective partisan campaigner as well as legislative strategist. For his sponsorship of the League of Nations, Wilson was awarded the 1919 Nobel Peace Prize. Wilson has consistently been ranked by scholars and the public as one of the top ten presidents.
6 Adlai Ewing Stevenson I (October 23, 1835 - June 14, 1914) served as the 23rd Vice President of the United States (1893-1897). Previously, he served as a Congressman from Illinois in the late 1870s and early 1880s. After his subsequent appointment as Assistant Postmaster General of the United States during Grover Cleveland's first administration, he fired many Republican postal workers and replaced them with Southern Democrats. This earned him the enmity of the Republican-controlled Congress, but made him a favorite as Grover Cleveland's running mate in 1892, and he duly became 23rd Vice President of the United States.In office, he supported the free-silver lobby against the gold-standard men like Cleveland, but was praised for ruling in a dignified, non-partisan manner.
In 1900, he ran for Vice President with William Jennings Bryan. He was the first ex-Vice President ever to win re-nomination for that post with a different Presidential candidate.
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