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DOI 10.14526/2070-4798-2018-13-3-90-100
AEROBIC AND ANAEROBIC CAPACITIES, FLEXIBILITY AND MUSCULAR PERFORMANCE OF MALAYSIAN YOUNG FEMALE SEDENTARY INDIVIDUALS, SILAT AND TAEKWONDO PRACTITIONERS
Foong Kiew Ooi1, Muhamad Nazri Mohd Anowar1
1Exercise and Sports Science Programme, School of Health Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia,
Kubang Kerian, Kelantan, Malaysia, fkooi@usm.my
Abstract. To date, published data on comparisons of physical fitness components of Malaysian young female sedentary individuals, silat and taekwondo practitioners are limited. Aim: This study investigated aerobic and anaerobic capacities, flexibility and muscular performance in Malaysian young female sedentary individuals, silat and taekwondo practitioners. Materials and Methods: Thirty-six young female participants (age ranged 15 to 20 years old) with three groups, i.e. sedentary control, silat and taekwondo groups (12 participants per group) were recruited in this study. All participants performed anthropometric and body composition assessments, aerobic capacity measurement via estimated maximum oxygen uptake (VO2max) test, Wingate test anaerobic capacities test, flexibility measurement via sit and reach test, muscular strength and explosive power measurements via hand grip strength test, back and leg strength test and standing long jump explosive power test. One-Way ANOVA was performed to determine the differences of the measured parameters among groups. Results: Silat group showed significantly (p<0.05) greater flexibility and handgrip strength of dominant and non-dominant hands compared to sedentary control group. Taekwondo group showed greater value of estimated VO2max compared to sedentary control group and silat group respectively. There were no significantly differences in back and leg strength, jumping explosive power and Wingate anaerobic capacities among sedentary control, silat and taekwondo groups. Conclusion: Silat and taekwondo could enhance certain physical fitness components compared to sedentary lifestyle. Silat practitioners are characterised by high flexibility and strong hand muscle. Both taekwondo and silat practitioners possessed similar anaerobic capacity, however, taekwondo practitioners showed higher aerobic capacity than silat practitioners. These results can be used as guidelines for planning training program for taekwondo and silat practitioners, as well as promoting active lifestyle by engaging in martial arts such as taekwondo and silat.
Key words: aerobic and anaerobic capacity, body composition, flexibility measurement, muscular performance, silat, taekwondo.
For citations: Foong Kiew Ooi, Muhamad Nazri Mohd Anowar. Aerobic and anaerobic capacities, flexibility and muscular performance of malaysian young female sedentary individuals, silat and taekwondo practitioners. The Russian Journal of Physical Education and Sport (Pedagogico-Phycological and Medico-Biological Problems of Physical Culture and Sports). 2018; 13(3): 70-78. DOI 10.14526/2070-4798-2018-13-3-90-100.
INTRODUCTION
Physical activity is important in providing healthy body. Through performing exercises and physical activities in daily life, physiological and psychological well-being of an individual can be enhanced (Biddle, 2002). Silat is a form of martial art that has being
practiced in Malaysia for self-defense purpose, as well as for enhancing physical fitness components and to continue the tradition and culture of Malay people (Silat Cekak Pusaka Hanafi, 2016). Taekwondo is a martial arts which originated from Korea (Morris, 1994). It is unarmed combat for self-
defense that involves skillful application of techniques such as punching, jumping kicks, blocks, dodges, parrying actions with hands and feet. It is believed that taekwondo and silat can improve flexibility, muscular strength, anaerobic and aerobic fitness, fat loss and reaction time, postural control, bone mineral density and psychological health.
In a previous study conducted by Aziz et al. (2002) which determined the physiological responses during silat matches and profile of elite pencak silat exponents, it was found that silat athletes showed slightly lower aerobic fitness, and hand grip strength but greater explosive leg power than judo athletes. They also mentioned that silat athletes showed higher levels of lower anaerobic power capabilities compared to upper body anaerobic capability. Based on their result of vertical jump test, they also found that silat athletes have greater explosive power implying that quick and explosive limb movement is more important in silat striking skills.
Fong and Ng (2014) mentioned that adult taekwondo practitioners were more flexible in their hamstrings and lower back muscles compared to the sedentary individuals. In comparison of novice and professional taekwondo athletes, the hip adductor muscles of well-trained taekwondo athlete were more flexible than those of novice athletes. The continuous training of taekwondo may have caused improvement of flexibility in lower part of body. Toskovic et al. (2004) reported that highly trained recreational taekwondo athletes tend to have lower body fat and higher aerobic fitness compared to a newcomer in taekwondo. Heller et al. (1998) found that taekwondo practitioner who has low level of body fat and high levels of aerobic fitness and flexibility tend to become a successful taekwondo athlete. According to Bouhlel et al. (2006) mentioned that high performance taekwondo athletes can be identified by low fat, well-developed aerobic and anaerobic capacities.
Markovic et al. (2005) carried out a study to investigate physical fitness and motor abilities in female Croatian elite taekwondo
athletes, aiming to distinguish between successful and less successful peers. Based on their study, the successful athletes have higher explosive leg power compared to less successful athletes, they also have significantly higher aerobic endurance and lateral agility. Their study also found that successful taekwondo athletes have higher speed in running and their anaerobic threshold was significantly higher compared to less successful athletes.
Study in skill-related fitness that being conducted by Suzana & Pieter (2006) has shown that there was no deference between winners and loser within gender in explosive leg power and aerobic fitness among young taekwondo athletes. Their results showed that the boys had greater explosive leg power compared to woman even after matching a body mass with an empirically derived exponent. In combat sports, developing strong muscular strength is important. A study conducted by Thompson and Vinueza (1991) did not find any muscular strength improvement with taekwondo training.
To our knowledge, to date published data on comparisons of physical fitness components of sedentary individuals, silat and taekwondo practitioners in Malaysia are limited. Therefore the present study was proposed.
MATERIALS AND METHODS Participants
Thirty six participants were recruited. They were age matched and being assigned into three groups with 12 participants per group, i.e. sedentary control group (n=12), silat group (n=12) and taekwondo group (n=12). The silat and taekwondo participants were individuals who practiced silat or taekwondo for at least two years in training. The sedentary control group were individuals who were not involved in any competitive sports, and exercised less than 2 times per week.
Research Design
This was a cross-sectional study. All participants performed anthropometric and body composition assessments, aerobic capacity measurement via estimated
maximum oxygen uptake (VO2max) test and Wingate test anaerobic capacities test, flexibility measurement via sit and reach test, muscular strength and explosive power measurements via hand grip strength test, back and leg strength test and standing long jump explosive power test. This study was carried out in the Sport Science Laboratory, Health Campus, Universiti Sains Malaysia. The test were monitored by qualified and experienced laboratory staffs. Procedures
Physiological characteristics
Participant's body weight and body height were measured using a stadiometer (Seca 220, Hamburg, Germany). Participant's body composition i.e. percent body fat (% BF) and fat-free mass (FFM, kg) were measured by using a "foot-to-foot" body composition analyser (Tanita model TBF-140). Participant's resting heart rate (beats per minute) and blood pressure (mmHg) were measured by using an automated upper arm blood measure monitor (TM-2540, San Jose, USA).
Aerobic Capacity Measurement: Estimated of Maximum Oxygen Uptake (VO2max) via 20 Meter Shuttle Run Test.
Estimated maximum oxygen uptake (VO2max) was determined via 20 meter shuttle run test. This test required the participants to run 20 meter in time with a "beep" sound from a CD recorder. The run was repeated until the participants could not keep pace with the "beep". The estimated VO2max was calculated based on the number of accomplished laps via website http://www.topendsport.com/testing/beep calc.htm.
Measurement of Anaerobic Capacities via Wingate Test
In Wingate anaerobic capacity test, participants performed a 30 second maximal cycling on a cycle ergometer (H-300-RLode, Groningen, Holland). Mean power (MP), peak power (PP), anaerobic capacity (AC), anaerobic power (AP) and fatigue index (FI) measured throughout the 30 second cycling test was recorded.
Flexibility Measurement via Sit and Reach Test
Participants' flexibility was tested via sit and reach test. Participants were required to sit and place the feet at the sit and reach testing box and then bent as further as possible by pushing the marker on top of the box to get the reading.
Muscular Performance Measurement via Hand Grip Strength Test, Back and Leg Strength Test and Standing Long Jump Test
Hand grip strength test was conducted by using a handgrip dynamometer. Participants hold the dynamometer in the dominant hand. The handle of the dynamometer was adjusted with the base rest on first metacarpal and the handle rest on middle of four fingers. The participants, squeezed the dynamometer with maximum effort and maintained for about 5 seconds without any other body movements was allowed. When completed with dominant hands, the same steps were applied to the nondominant hands.
Back and leg strength test was conducted by using a back and leg strength dynamometer. The dial was required to be reset to zero before the test was started. Participant was required to stand upright on the base of the dynamometer with feet shoulder width apart, arms hang straight down to hold the center of the bar with both hands, and with the palms facing toward the body. The chain was required to be adjusted so that the knees were bent at approximately 110 degrees. Participants did bend back, pulled as hard as possible on the chain and tried to straighten the legs and kept arms straight. They were required to pull against the weight steadily with no jerky movements, and kept keep the feet flat on the base of the dynamometer. Maximum performance was achieved when legs were almost straightened at the end of the lift.
While for standing long jump power test, participants were required to stand in front of non-slip rubber mat with feet slightly apart. Swinging of the arms and bending of the knees were required to provide forward
drive. The participants were required to jump as far as possible and landed on both feet without falling backwards. The distance of the jump was recorded. Statistical Analysis
All data were analysed using the Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) version 22.0. One-way ANOVA was used to determine the differences of the measured parameters among groups. Results are presented as mean and standard deviation (mean ± SD). Statistical significance was accepted atp value < 0.05. RESULTS
Anthropometry and Body Composition of the Participants
Table 1
Means age, body height, body weight, body mass index (BMI), percentage body fat (% BF), fat free
mass, resting heart rate, diastolic blood pressure systolic blood pressure in sedentary, silat and ___taekwondo groups. _
Parameters Sedentary control group (n=12) Silat group (n=12) Taekwondo group (n=12) p values
Silat versus sedentary Taekwondo versus sedentary Taekwondo versus silat
Age (Yr) 17.5 (1.6) 17.6 (1.6) 16.8 (1.5) 1.000 0.920 0.753
Body height (cm) 153.5 (5.6) 156.6 (5.3)* 153.4 (3.5) 0.013 0.475 0.347
Body weight (kg) 46.3 (7.1) 51.7 (11.2) 46.8 (8.3) 0.467 1.000 0.583
Body mass index (kg-1m2) 20.0 (3.4) 21.0 (4.3) 20.0 (3.3) 1.000 1.000 1.000
Percentage body fat (%) 27.1 (7.0) 29.3 (9.7) 25.3 (7.0) 1.000 1.000 1.000
Fat Free Mass 33.4 (2.6) 35.6 (3.7) 34.5 (3.1) 1.000 1.000 0.671
Resting heart rate 82.6 (9.8) 78.8 (12.5) 84.8 (9.3) 0.269 1.000 1.000
Diastolic blood pressure 66.3 (8.0) 69.8 (7.7) 71.0 (4.3) 0.092 0.891 0.719
Systolic blood pressure 107.3 (11.6) 116.8 (10.7) 111.8 (8.7) 0.667 0.338 1.000
Values are expressed as means (SD). p value corresponds to comparison between groups *, p < 0.05 significantly different from sedentary control group Bold number indicate statistically significant
Flexibility, Hand Grip Strength, Back and Leg Strength and Standing Long Jump Explosive Power
There was statistically significant greater (p<0.05) flexibility in silat group compared to sedentary group. There was no significant difference observed in flexibility
There was statistically significant greater (p<0.05) value of body height in silat group compared to sedentary control group. However there were no significant differences in body height between taekwondo and sedentary control group, as well as between taekwondo and silat groups. There were no significant differences observed in age, body weight, body mass index (BMI) percentage of body fat, fat free mass, resting heart rate, diastolic blood pressure and systolic blood pressure between silat and sedentary groups, taekwondo and sedentary groups, as well as taekwondo and silat groups. (Table 1)
between taekwondo and sedentary control groups. Similarly, there was no significant difference in flexibility between taekwondo and silat groups. Regarding hand grip strength, there were statistically significant greater hand grip strength in dominant hand for silat group (p<0.05) compared to
sedentary control group. However, there was no significant differences observed in hand grip strength between taekwondo and sedentary control group, as well as silat and
taekwondo groups. There were no significant differences observed in back and leg strength and standing long jump power among all the groups. (Table 2)
Table 2
Flexibility, hand grip strength, back and leg strength and standing long jump in sedentary, silat and
Parameters Sedentary control group (n=12) Silat group (n=12) Taekwondo group (n=12) p values
Silat versus sedentary Taekwondo versus sedentary Taekwondo versus silat
Hand grip strength (kg) Dominant hand (kg) 20.8 (4.2) 26.5 (4.8)* 23.0 (4.5) 0.017 0.763 0.240
Nondominant hand 18.4 (4.1) 23.5 (5.9)* 21.1 (6.0) 0.048 0.465 0.862
Flexibility (cm) 28.8 (4.3) 34.8 (4.3)* 32.8 (6.5) 0.025 0.216 1.000
Back and leg strength (kg) 55.7 (18.2) 68.3 (18.4) 56.9 (20.6) 0.343 1.000 0.460
Standing long jump (cm) 99.9 (24.3) 119.2 (13.3) 112.3 (20.4) 0.053 0.079 1.000
Values are expressed as means (SD). p value corresponds to comparison between groups *, p < 0.05, significantly different from sedentary control group. Bold numbers indicate statistically significant
Aerobic Capacity (Estimated VO2max) and Wingate Anaerobic Capacities
Taekwondo groups exhibited statistically significant higher (p<0.001) estimated VO2max value than sedentary control group. Similarly, taekwondo group also showed higher (p<0.001) estimated VO2max than silat group (Table 4.3). There was no
significant difference between silat and sedentary control groups. There was no statistically significant difference in mean power, peak power, anaerobic capacity, anaerobic power and fatigue index among sedentary control, silat and taekwondo groups (Table 3).
Parameters Sedentary control group (n=12) Silat group (n=12) Taekwondo group (n=12) p values
Silat versus sedentary Taekwondo versus sedentary Taekwondo versus silat
Aerobic capacity: Estimated VO2max (mL.kg-1,min) 21.0 (1.4) 21.3(1.3) 24.8 (2.8) *** ### 1.000 <0.001 <0.001
Wingate anaerobic capacity parameters
Mean power (Watt) 209.4 (53.1) 243.1 (55.2) 196.4 (54.8) 0.417 1.000 0.129
Peak power (Watt) 421.0 (30.9) 429.1 (68.7) 407.9 (58.2) 1.000 1.000 1.000
Table 3
Aerobic capacity (estimated VO2max) and Wingate anaerobic capacity parameters in sedentary, silat
and taekwondo groups
Anaerobic capacity (Watt.kg-1) 4.6 (1.0) 4.7 (0.8) 4.2 (0.6) 1.000 0.747 0.309
Anaerobic power (Watt.kg-1) 9.2 (1.5) 8.6 (1.8) 9.0 (1.9) 1.000 1.000 1.000
Fatigue index (Watt.sec-1) 10.9 (1.7) 10.3 (2.6) 11.2 (4.0) 1.000 1.000 1.000
Values are expressed as means (SD). p value corresponds to comparison between athlete and non- athlete groups ***, p < 0.001 significantly different from sedentary control group ###, p < 0.001 significantly different from silat group Bold numbers indicate statistically significant
DISCUSSION
This study found that silat group showed significantly greater body height compared to sedentary control group. However, there were no significantly differences between taekwondo group and sedentary control group, as well as between taekwondo and silat group. Study of Pieter et al. (2009) on somatotype of elite combative sport athletes found that there was no difference in somatotype between silat and karate athletes. Inconsistent with finding of Pieter et al. (2009), this present study found that silat practitioners were taller than taekwondo practitioners and sedentary individuals. The present finding may reflect that silat training with high impact activities such as lift kick and cat kick could elicit beneficial effects on bone growth in length and subsequently contribute to the greater body height in adolescent silat practitioners. This is based on the fact that osteogenic responses are high during adolescence, and bone responds with great rate to load produced by high impact physical activities (Ooi et al. 2009). In combat sports, height gives advantage for longer reach. Falco et al. (2009) mentioned that standing further from an opponent gives an advantage to a taller competitor to kick from a further distance. Thus extra height is advantage for an athlete involved in combat sport.
One of the main finding of the present study was that silat group showed significantly greater flexibility compared to sedentary control group. However, there was no significant difference between taekwondo and sedentary groups, as well as between taekwondo and silat groups. This result
implies that involvement in silat is better than sedentary lifestyle in enhancing flexibility. According to Shamsuddin (2005), involvement in silat is a great way to develop and to increase physical fitness, such as flexibility. Nevertheless, a previous study conducted by Cynthia (2017) which involved silat athletes found that there was no significantly difference in flexibility between athletes and non-athletes. The present study found that the flexibility value in taekwondo group was only slightly lower that silat group, despite the difference of flexibility values between these two groups did not reach significant level statistically. These results imply that taekwondo training may enhance flexibility of the practitioners.
Practice of martial art is believed can cause improvement in flexibility due to training. The daily routine of martial art requires the practitioner to stretch and this can help in improving their flexibility. For instance, a previous study by Taylor-Piliae (2006) on tai chi practitioners found that after 12 weeks of training, there were improvements in upper- and lower-body flexibility, balancing, upper- and lower-body muscular strength and endurance in older Chinese adults. Flexibility has a close relation with martial arts, the reason is that when involving a combat skill such as kicking, it requires ones to move a joint through their full range motion, especially in the roundhouse and axe kicks. According to Erie et al. (2007), lower limb flexibility allows athletes to kick higher which is need for scoring of higher point in taekwondo. In taekwondo matches, kicking to head successfully can grant more points compared
to other parts of the body. In addition, flexibility can help in minimising the risk of injury. Similarly, it was mentioned by Chandler (1990) that in tennis sports, dominant shoulder was more flexible than non-dominant shoulder in tennis players. Another main finding in the present study was that silat group showed statistically greater hand grip strength in both dominant and non-dominant hands compared to sedentary control group. However, there was no significant difference between taekwondo and sedentary groups, as well as between taekwondo and silat groups. This implied that involvement in silat is beneficial in enhancing hand grip strength, in other words strong hand muscle.
Aziz et al. (2002) reported that hand grip strength of silat athletes was slightly lower compared to athletes from other martial arts, such as taekwondo and judo. The authors mentioned that this is due to difference in race. The authors collected data from Asian population in their study and their data were then compared to other races from Europe countries.
It is speculated that the strong hand muscle in silat practitioners observed in the present study was due to the nature of silat itself, because silat requires silat practitioners to work on grappling. This helps in developing and strengthening muscle of hand. It is also speculated that silat requires the practitioners to use hand to bring down opponents to get more point compared to taekwondo which requires a high kicking to head of opponents to get a higher point. The present study finding agreed with finding of Abian-Vicen (2012) which also showed that the nature of badminton sport and tennis sport involving hands can enhance strength of the hand muscle. Their studies also showed that involvement in tennis elicited two to three times higher hand grip strength compared to badminton. The authors mentioned that this is due to tennis racquet is heavier compared to badminton racquet, and requires a stronger hand grip strength in tennis players to hold the racquets compared to badminton players.
There are two categories in silat, i.e. artistic and contact (Aziz et al., 2002). Silat pencak is an artistic category of self-defense, In contrast, silat olahraga is a contact sport that emphasises ability of a silat exponent to perform his silat techniques in combat, with striking and defensive actions such as punching, kicking, throwing, catching, parrying and blocking and any others skills related to silat techniques. In the present study, the silat practitioners are involved in silat olahraga, therefore it is speculated that the punching, throwing, catching and blocking silat techniques which they mastered in have resulted the present finding of greater hand muscle strength compared to sedentary controls.
In the present study, it was observed that there were no significant differences in back and leg strength and standing long jump explosive power among sedentary control, silat and taekwondo groups. Inconsistent with the present study, previous study by Aziz et al. (2002) on explosive leg power in silat reported that silat exponents have higher lower body power than taekwondo and judo athletes, when they compared their data with the results from other studies on taekwondo and judo athletes. The authors mentioned that this may be due to silat uses a single type of knockout in matches, where lower body part was used, especially legs to grip and target limb of opponents to bring them down to collect a point.
The absence of the significant differences in leg explosive power in the present study between female adolescent silat and taekwondo practitioners with mean age of 17 years old and Aziz et al. (2002) may be due to the lower competition level, and differences in gender and age of the female silat and taekwondo practitioners in the present study compared to the elite male athletes with mean age of 24 years old in Aziz et al. (2002). In addition, the female adolescent silat and taekwondo practitioners of the present study were involved in training not strictly for competition, thus their training level was not high enough for them to show a difference in back and leg strength and
standing long jump explosive power compared to sedentary controls.
The most notable finding in the present study was that taekwondo group showed statistically significant higher estimated aerobic capacity (VO2max) compared to sedentary control group and silat groups. However, there was no significant difference between silat and sedentary groups. This study implies that involvement in taekwondo can elicit more beneficial effects in increasing aerobic capacity, i.e estimated VO2max in taekwondo compared to silat and sedentary lifestyle. Similarly, Heller et al. (1998) and Markovic et al. (2005) also found that taekwondo practitioners have higher level of aerobic fitness. In general, taekwondo training involves continuous jumping and high kicking movements over a period of time, and this requires aerobic fitness. Therefore, it is speculated that this is the reason of the present observation that high aerobic fitness was observed in taekwondo practitioners.
Regarding Wingate anaerobic capacities, the present study found that there were no statistically significant differences in mean power, anaerobic power, peak power, anaerobic capacity and fatigue index among sedentary control, silat and taekwondo groups. This result implies that silat and taekwondo training regimens did not affect anaerobic capacities significantly of silat and taekwondo practitioners in the present study. These study findings are in agreement with Aziz et al. (2002), which reported that there were only slightly lower peak power and mean power in silat athletes compared to taekwondo and judo athletes.
Comparison between Borkowski et al. (2001) and Heller et al. (1998) showed that elite female judo athletes have similar anaerobic capacity compared to elite female taekwondo athletes. Nevertheless, when compared the present study results with these two previous studies, it was found that adolescent female silat and taekwondo in this study showed lower anaerobic capacity parameters, i.e. mean power and peak power compared to elite judo and taekwondo in
Borkowski et al. (2001) and Heller et al. (1998). The differences in anaerobic capacity parameters reported by these two previous studies with the present study could be due to difference in age, gender, competition level, levels of training, ethnicity or genetic makeup, and type of martial art involved.
CONCLUSIONS
These findings imply that engagement in silat and taekwondo could enhance certain physical fitness components compared to sedentary lifestyle. Silat practitioners are characterised by high flexibility and strong hand muscle. Both taekwondo and silat in practitioners possessed similar anaerobic capacity, however, taekwondo practitioners showed higher aerobic capacity than silat practitioners. It is hoped that the present findings obtained from this study can be used as guidelines for planning training program for taekwondo and silat practitioners, as well as promoting active lifestyle by engaging in martial arts such as taekwondo and silat.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The present study was approved by Human Research Ethics Committee of Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM) (JEPeM Code: USM/JEPeM/16090326). The authors would like to thank the coaches of Malaysia Kelantan Silat Association and Taekwondo Clubs for their support, and the participants for their participation in this study. Furthermore, deepest appreciation to the staff of Sports Science laboratory and Ms. Nurul Ain Fathma Abdullah of Universiti Sains Malaysia for their assistance.
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Foong Kiew Ooi - Doctor, Associate Professor, Exercise and Sports Science Programme, School of Health Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 16150, Kubang Kerian, Kelantan, Malaysia, e-mail: fkooi@usm.my
Muhamad Nazri Mohd Anowar - Exercise and Sports Science Programme, School of Health Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 16150, Kubang Kerian, Kelantan, Malaysia
DOI 10.14526/2070-4798-2018-13-3-100-106
CONCEPTUAL BASIS OF PHYSICAL UPBRINIGNG AT HIGHER EDUCATIONAL
ESTABLISHMENTS OF OUR COUNTRY
Anisimova A.Y.1
1Federal State Budgetary Educational Establishment of Higher Education "Izhevsk State Technical University Named After Kalashnikov M.T.", Russia, Izhevsk,
ffkis@istu.ru
