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0Cultural Heritage
& Modern Technologies
www.aaatec.org ISSN 2837-0759
DOI: 10.24412/2837-0759-2024-2206227 UDC: [71+72]
A study on the origin of old Dhamar city and its urban development until 1962 AD
Ahmed A. Al-Nehmi1, Ahmed M. Yafaa2, Ebrahim Al-Nomari3
Abstract
The study attempts to reveal the historical roots of the emergence of the ancient city of Dhamar and its urban development during successive periods. The research problem lies in the lack of a specialized study that focuses its attention on the emergence and development of the city's architecture and development. The aim of the study was to trace the emergence of the city, and draw a clear picture of the city's borders and its urban growth in successive historical periods until the revolution in 1962 AD, in addition to identifying the influences that had a major role in the city's architecture and urbanization. The study relied mainly on previous historical and archaeological sources to trace the planning and urban characteristics of Yemeni cities in the pre- and post-Islamic periods, as well as studies that dealt with the city in particular. On the other hand, conducting a field trip to collect the information required for the study through observation and collecting photos. In dealing with the subject, the study relied on a number of approaches: the historical approach to trace the stages through which the city passed the comparative approach to compare the ancient city with its counterparts to determine similarities and differences, and the analytical and descriptive approach to analyze the urban structure of the city. The study concluded that the ancient city has maintained its urban cohesion over thousands of years, adhering to its alleys, streets, buildings, elements, and details of architectural facades, and during different periods, maintaining the continuity of its values and principles of construction. The study confirmed the research hypothesis about the emergence of the city as a trading station on the trade caravan route that penetrates the plateau of the central Yemeni highlands. The study also confirmed the hypothesis of research on the emergence of the city of Dhamar when the trade caravan route flourished. The city became famous and became an important area and trading station around the third century AD.
Keywords: Yemen, Yemeni Architecture, Mosques, Dhamar City, Islamic Architecture. 1. Introduction
Yemen occupies the southwestern part of the Arabian Peninsula. Due to its location and supervision on the Arabian Sea, the Red Sea, and the Straits of the Bab al-Mandab, it is the link between ancient civilizations in Mesopotamia, the Nile Valley, Indian and Persian civilizations, and East African civilizations (Barakat 1995, p. 197).
1 Department of Architecture, College of Engineering, Thamar University, Yemen. Email: ahmedabdurabu7@gmail.com
2 Department of Architecture, College of Engineering, Thamar University, Yemen. Email: yafaa_a@yahoo.com
3 Department of Architecture, College of Engineering, Thamar University, Yemen
The Yemeni civilization has flourished on the factor of trade, and its first cities grew up on trade roads. The cities have worked on the management of commercial movement and protecting their convoys and their owners. The old Yemeni kingdoms have adopted the trade of frankincense and incense. They were collected in production areas in Dhofar and then transferred to Hadramout areas and builders until they reached Sheba kingdom, then from Marib across Najran, then Petra and Gaza. Another road moved eastward to Mesopotamia. Several stations were permitted to pay fees, taxes, and services. In the first century AD, Roman ships began to move across the Red Sea to carry incense to the cities of Egypt (Garum 1999, p. 73).
In fact, the central regions of Yemen flourished as a result of converting trade from the east to the west. This is accompanied by the beginning of Jews in Yemen, who took control of trade facilities, helping them deploy Judaism until King Asaad al-Kamel and Dhu Nawas believed it (Sharaf Alddin 1964, p. 154). The actual incorporation of the kingdom began in 115 BC (Barbanes 2000, p. 208). The main cities of the kingdom grew up along the trade road, which penetrates the central mountain highlands to pass through Dhofar, Dhamar, Sana'a, and Saadah. The cities were established in the beginning in the form of commercial stations that contained a major axis, often heading south-north with trade roads. The selection of a market site varies from one city to another depending on its location. Either it is a city on the trade line, the market is big on its axis, or the city that is not on the trade road has a market that serves it only.
The current study discusses the old city of Dhamar, so it begins to review previous studies to determine the cognitive gap and identify the research problem. Al-Garafy (2004) studied the urban characteristics of the Dhamar city, its geographical features, urban growth, and land use in the urban sections during the modern historical stages from 1962 AD until 2015 AD. It indicated that the city has expanded and developed gradually, governing geographical, historical, political, economic, and social factors.
Al-Razehy (2005) studied two inscriptions that talked about battles that occurred in pre-Islam between the Sheba army and the Himyire army. The battles occurred between Herran and Dhamar. The researcher has imagined the location from the inscriptions about the city of Dhamar, which has emerged as more fortified than the fortified city of Herran. The study concluded that the description of the ancient Dhamar city applied to the current archaeological site of Dhamar al-Qarn.
The study by Al-Dholay (2008) addressed the environmental effects of urban growth and the diagnosis of problems caused by urban growth. It targeted identifying the reflections of the growth and expansion of environmental and resource resources, especially environmental pollution, and trying to find solutions. The study by Al-Shamiri (2009) dealt with urban city components such as mosques, markets, houses, and other components. On the other hand, the study of Al-Alosy (2009) dealt with the Dhamar city during Islam until the third century A.H., which addressed the history of the city in the first Hijri centuries.
Al-Komany (2010) studied the mosques of the old Dhamar until the end of the twelfth century AH. The study proved that Dhamar grew up during the pre-Islamic period, according to old inscriptions and historical sources. The study indicates that the neighborhood of al-Hotah is the oldest region of the city, which represents the old city. The first market was found in this neighborhood, as well as the Great Mosque. The study also indicates those al-Garajish neighborhood returns to the seventh century AH, al-Mohal neighborhood returns to the pre-century eighth period, and the Jewish neighborhood returns to the eleventh century AH.
Kodimah (2016) studied the problems of urbanization in the historic city and how it is accompanied by neglect, tampering, demolition, random building, and the migration of its
indigenous residents. It discussed the changes affecting the social and economic structure and the architecture of the historical city. The study of Al-Dhamary (2018) dealt with the great steam bath in the ancient city, explaining the history of the building according to the Waqf Document of the Ottoman governor Behram Pasha. The researcher also studied traditional house facades in the ancient city. The researcher addressed the architectural elements and provided a description of their types, locations, functional, and environmental roles.
After reviewing previous studies, which addressed the old city of Dhamar, and after studying the content of each of them, it shows that some of them were analytical and descriptive studies of the current situation of the city, and others were archaeological historical studies. Some studies analyzed the mosques, and another analyzed the urban growth of the city after 1962 AD. It is concluded that historical and architectural research lacked a specialized study of the old city.
The global attention to historical and heritage areas increased during the recent period as a result of the importance of the sites to tell the date and civilization of the region and as a tool that can be employed to achieve sustainable development at the moment, a tool that has learned a lot of environmental, social, and economic sciences. On the other hand, the rapid growth and non-thoughtfulness of Dhamar architecture led to the loss of the urban and historical identity of the city. Therefore, there is a need to review scientific literature to show the importance and status of the city, its history, and its urbanization.
In fact, there are significant differences in the origin of old Yemeni cities, the reasons behind both of them, and the factors that have affected their form, formation, components, and urban elements. According to the previous studies, there is a knowledge shortage about how to grow and develop the old Dhamar city. Therefore, the research problem is identified in the absence of knowledge of the origin of the old city, its growth, and urban development during the stages of history.
Depending on archaeological and historical information on the city, as well as old maps, the main assumption of the current study is that the location of the current old city grew up in the pre-Islam period, and its first seed was the commercial market. The study presents the question: How did the city of Dhamar originate? The hypothesis is that the origin of the city was as a commercial station on the road for commercial convoys.
2. The Objectives
This research aims to track the first roots of the ancient city to build a general picture of its origin and the factors affecting it. The research tries to track the effects that played the main role in formulating the city. The research focuses on the presentation of the stages of growth and development that affected the planning of the city from one period to another.
3. Research Methodology
This research is trying to understand the historical roots of the establishment of Dhamar city since its inception and even its urban development at several intervals during its long history. The research depends on previous historical, archeological, and architectural sources. Second, the field study collects information through observation, collecting images, and plans. The research also depends on a number of approaches, including the historical approach to tracking the stages of the city by investigating the news that arises from the most important historical transformations. The comparative approach is to compare the origin of the city with its counterparts in Yemen, Arabic, and Islamic cities to identify similarities and differences.
The current research depends on the tracking of mosques in historical periods as evidence of the growth and development of the city in that period and in that area. Because there is a founding text on the walls of mosques, recorded by the originator, the dates of construction and refurbishment stages represent significant documentation. Some researchers referred to this method, and they adopted it because there are no historical sources clearly written about the city architecture during its historic periods, as well as the lack of architectural remains. Al-Shibani et al. (2005) adopted some mosques from ancient Sanaa city to track the growth and development of urban. Al-Komany (2010) adopted this when talking about the mosque of the old city of Dhamar, trying to know the historical periods. As well as relying on some documents, including the waqf document, published by Al-Dhamary (2018).
4. Dhamar Location
It is located in the central highland territory and at a height of 2400 meters above sea level (Al-Garafy 2004, p. 11). The city is about 100 kilometers south of Sana'a. It is limited from the east to the province of al-Baida, from the south to the province of Ibb, and from the west to the province of Hodeidah (fig. 1).
Figure 1. Map of Yemen Shows the Location of Dhamar4
The city settled in the Blssan valley, which is on the northeastern side of the al-Gannh valley, which runs from the west to the east (Al-Aobady 2009, p. 77). On the other hand, its climate is affected by its geographical location in the central western plateau within the dry region. The rain falls on the city in two seasons, the first in March until the beginning of May, and the second starting in July and continuing until August (Al-Garafy 2004, p. 18).
The city is located between two major consolidations of two mountains: the fortress of Herran in the north and Dhamar al-Qarn in the south. The city location was not arbitrarily chosen, but it is likely to be in their belief within the places that were blessed and saved. The historical news
4 https://www.maps-of-the-world.org/maps/asia/yemen/detailed-political-map-of-yemen-with-relief-roads-railroads-and-major-cities- 1993.jpg
reported that a serpent or scorpion cannot live in it, and when a serpent or scorpion enters the city, they die (Al-Komany 2010, p. 17). It indicates that the city is protected and surrounded. From the agricultural and economic sides, it is located on a fertile plain with an abundance of groundwater. In addition, its strategic location among the central highlands made it an important commercial station on the commercial convoy's road, which is witnessing the existing market for all goods and facilities (Al-Shamiri 2009, p. 35).
The city is one of the Yemeni and Arab cities that have maintained their outdated planning and formation properties. It has remained silent on its ancient architectural style, which possesses an ancient history dating back to pre-Islam (fig. 2).
Figure 2. Architecture of the Old Dhamar City (Al-Shamiri 2009, fig. 1)
In fact, the 1962 AD revolution formed developments in all trends and national dimensions; the field of architecture and urban was at its head. The city has grown as a result of political stability, growing more than before, and the extension of major roads as well as in other directions at the expense of agricultural land. On the other hand, several changes occurred in the old city, where some buildings were removed, some streets expanded, and modern building materials were introduced (Al-Garafy 2004, p. 40).
5. The origin of Dhamar city
Most of the researchers agree that old cities did not arise at once or for one reason but originated from a number of families and communities in a particular place as a result of a number of factors, including geographical factors, economic factors, political factors, and social factors. In Yemen, the settlement signs in the historic period began with human gatherings and established its cities in structural groups in certain areas (De Maigret 2002, pp. 273- 285). Therefore, one researcher assumes that the start of the settlement of the city was in several villages, and its location was in Herran. It moved to its current location in the Islamic period when the Great Mosque was established (Al-Alosy 2009, p. 140).
The city has seen all stages of Yemeni history. Through inscriptions, it originated in the pre-Islam period, and the most important factors that have helped to have its outstanding geographical location, purity, avoid freshwater, and nearby, fertile fields of agriculture (Al-Komany 2010, p.
17). The geographical dimension plays a prominent role in the emergence and development of cities. The important cities are present in locations characterized by fertility and land to respond to future expansions. It is an old and modern commercial region. It is a focal point between the regions and the main cities, such as Sanaa, Ibb, and al-Baida; between the old and modern trade; and between southern Yemen and its northern counterpart (Al-Alosy 2009, p. 144).
Hypothesis 1
The hypothesis is that the emergence of the city was as a commercial station on the road of commercial convoys. There is a clear ambiguity about creating the city. The novels speak about it as an Islamic city, and the big mosque is the first seed for its establishment. Old Yemeni cities were classified into political, religious, and commercial cities. In any case, it was classified as a religious, political, or commercial capital. In fact, it was a commercial city according to its location, which represents the point of conflict as mentioned in historical sources. Al-Hamdani described the pilgrimage road, which runs from Aden to Sana'a and to Mecca. It starts in Aden, then Lahag, then al-Gand, then Dhamar, and then Sana'a. This road is the same way that it passed by during the winter summer trips before Islam. The convoys came from the port of Aden, then Dhamar, then Sana'a, then Saada, then Mecca, and then Damascus (Abdullah 1990, p. 333).
In order to understand the origin of the city, it should be compared with its counterpart, Sana'a, which shares most of its features, characteristics, and circumstances. The ancient Sana'a originated as a commercial station linked between the south gate and the north gate (Paul and Gemet 1987, p. 20). Therefore, the Sana'a market flourished due to its location on the trade road, the Arab convoy's road, and the pilgrimage road that flourished after Islam (Al-Saadi 1987, p. 249). In the same way, the old Dhamar is like other cities that are located on the road in terms of origin (Al-Komany 2010, p. 20). The old market, which was a square located on the west side of the Great Mosque (fig. 3).
Figure 3. Market Square of al-Hotah - the Old Market of the City (Al-Komany 2010, p. 370)
One of the researchers assumed that the city had been in its current location since Islam entered Yemen (Al-Razehy 2005, p. 135). Furthermore, it was not like the neighboring and surrounding cities, which originated in pre-Islam, where all cities have taken naturally fortified sites on the
mountains, such as Haker, Benon, and Dhofar. The selection of cities was in natural places because of the situation, which was prevalent and dominated by conflicts and wars.
On the other hand, Mecca city originated in a non-planted valley, although it is one of the most important cities that originated on the convoy road linking Aden port to Gaza port. Despite the spread of the mountains around the valley in all directions, the reason for the origin of these cities is their economic importance and location. This is imposed on the current location of Sanaa, Mecca, Dhamar, and most of the cities located on the road convoys. Therefore, mountains around Mecca support the security, mountains surrounding Sana'a support the security, as well as mountains surrounding Dhamar.
The assumption of Al-Razehy (2005) was that the city was in the fortress of Dhamar al-Qarn and that the commercial market for convoys was in the fort. However, it is not logical to go up trade convoys to the fortress, then go down and continue its path to Sana'a or to Aden. Some may ask why the market is not in the current place and the ancient city is in the fortress of Dhamar al-Qarn. The Sanaa market was not in its current location, the city on a fort or mountain in the surrounding mountains, because it is enough for the city to have a closed fortress to defend it. The presence of the fortresses of Herran and Dhamar al-Qarn was sufficient to protect the city and its market. This is one of the methods adopted in that period for the construction of fortresses on the convoy's road.
Figure 4. Location of Dhamar City in its Inception
The comparison was with Yemeni cities in the first century BC, where the eastern cities were on the convoy's road and central markets were associated with southern and northern gates. The cities were also held on flat sites in the valleys, such as the city of Marib, the capital of the Saba,
Aden
on the valley passed through the trade (Hanashur 2007, p. 156). Tamna city was held in the Bayhan region on the left side of Wadi Bayhan (Doe 1983, p. 130). Shabwa city, the capital of Hadramout, is in the valley of al-Mashar (Breton 2003, pp. 200-204). Qernao city is located in the al-Khared valley (Al-Aghbary 1994, p. 70). These capitals were associated with those regions for direct linkages on trade roads, so they were stations that received taxes and provided protection and services for convoys.
The city has been a commercial center since pre-Islam; the historical news mentioned that there was a stone written on the foundation of the Kaaba: For those who ruled Dhamar? For the good Himyer, for those who are the kings, Dhamar? For Quraish traders. As well as Dhamari traders, there were investments in Mecca. In addition, the Mecca traders also own property and trade in Yemen with the Dhamari people (Al-Alosy 2009, p. 141). This is a clear indication that it is a very important commercial city, and its residents are famous traders. Therefore, its origin is as a station on the trade road that links the cities of the central plateau of Yemen. This is a feature of the creation of the Islamic cities of Baghdad, Cairo, and Mosul to mediate the cities of the territory (Othman 1988, p. 98).
From the above, it originated as a station on a commercial road extending from the old city south to its north. It was a major station on the road that penetrates the Yemeni plateau, extending from Dhofar, then Dhamar al-Qarn to the city, and then continuing to Herran, then to Sanaa, and then to al-Taif (fig. 4).
Hypothesis 2
The hypothesis is that the origin of the Dhamar city was when the convoy's road flourished. Al-Aobady (2009) assumes that the city was built in the Islamic period at the current location. Al-Razehy (2005) also assumes that the location of the current city has also grown in an Islamic period. In addition, the city mentioned in the pre-Islamic inscriptions was in the fortress of Dhamar al-Qarn. The fact is that the oldest part of Sana'a city in the Islamic age was the Great Mosque, built under the order of the Prophet, and then the markets constructed around it.
Dhamar and Sana'a originated as commercial stations on the convoys road in the same period. Therefore, the two cities should be compared according to the historical and archaeological sources that mention them. When the trade convoys flourished (winter and summer trips), Sana'a, Dhamar, and cities on the same road were commercial stations. Dhamar market as well as Sana'a market are located on the same convoy's road. The Sana'a market was flourishing in the fifth and sixth centuries AD (Hanashur 2007, p. 171). The Sana'a is mentioned in the inscriptions from 70 AD, and it flourished when the old convoys road from eastern cities were turned into mountainous cities in the central highlands (Al-Saadi 1987, p. 245). Sana'a is also mentioned in the Nami inscription (12) in the reign of the king Sharam Otar in the third century AD (Al-Shibani et al. 2005, p 36).
Most historical sources attribute the name of Dhamar city to the founder of King Dhamar Ali. It is known that there is more than one king named Dhamar. The important thing is that the name has a relationship with the city, whether he named the king Dhamar because he lived in it or because the founder of the city is Dhamar Ali. One of the researchers attributed the city to the founder of king Dhamar Ali and his son (Al-Garafy 2004, p. 10), and there is a king Dhamar Ali who lived in the first century AD (Al-Shibani et al. 2005, p. 37), while some researchers attributed it to the king Dhamar Ali Yanof in 680 BC (Al-Aobady 2009, p. 76).
It is mentioned in the inscriptions since the beginning of history (AD) as an important city, which indicates that it became a city in political and economic terms. It is mentioned in one
inscription that it dates to the first half of the third century AD (Al-Halo 2009, p. 179). Another inscription dating back to the third century AD states that the wording (hjrn dmar) means Dhamar city (Al-Komany 2010, p. 16). The city mentioned in the inscription dates to the third century AD (Al-Razehy 2005, p. 121). This indicates that since the first centuries AD, it has become an important city to acquire the region's events as a large city. It concludes that the beginning of city origin is unknown, and it is important that it began to appear in the events from the beginning of the centuries AD and began showing in the inscriptions that mentioned it.
6. The Stages of City Growth and Development
The city has long lived in its identity and its traditional architecture. A limited area, and the narrow streets and cohesive buildings characterize the city at all stages of its history. The streets have been narrowed in the old part of the city until the present (Al-Garafy 2004, p. 28). The nature of the location played a major role in identifying trends in the city's growth. It has seen patterns and trends for growth over the years, according to the natural determinants of the site. The old city of Dhamar has passed stages in which it evolved throughout history.
Phase 1: Pre-Islam Period
The settlement in Dhamar province dates back to prehistoric ages, especially the Stone Age and Bronze Age, when many archaeological sites were spread (Rashad 2009, p. 15). Archaeological excavations have proved that the first integrated city with its urban components in the Arabian Peninsula was in the al-Hada region in Dhamar province at the beginning of the Bronze Age (Wilkinson et al. 2001, pp. 250-253). This city is the settlement of Hammat al-Qa, which is located to the west of Mabar city and to the northeast of Dhamar (fig. 5). The settlement occupies a mountain hill with a semi-level surface rising to the level of the valley. In its structure, the city has basic components of cities such as fences, gates, main streets, sub-streets, and morphological division into neighborhoods (Edens et al. 2000, p. 857).
Figure 5. Settlement of Hammat al-Qa (Wilkinson et al. 2001, fig. 5)
The city of Dhamar originated in the historic period of Yemen. Some researchers believe it grew up in the first century AD (Al-Alosy 2009, p. 140). The important thing is that the city return to the Sheba era. It was with Benon, Dhofar, and Haker, the main cities of the old Yemeni kingdoms. The city has emerged after a commercial convoy's road from eastern cities to the cities
of mountainous ponds in the central highlands of Yemen, such as the cities of Aden, Dhofar, and Sanaa. These cities have become centers for economic and political activities (Hanashur 2007, p. 58). The commercial convoys carried the incense as well as coming from the Arabian Sea ports from Aden and Qena pass through Dhofar, which are heading to Sana'a and to the Sham ports. Furthermore, it was necessary to pass through the central regions, rest, and supply the supplies. Therefore, the commercial centers became commercial cities that had a market in which goods were brought and distributed.
The city in pre-Islam was like other cities on the convoy's road as a commercial market based on its south-north-centered link. Thus, it originated in other cities that were located on the commercial road. The city has been formed on its trading market, with Herran fortress in the north and Dhamar al-Qarn fortress in the south. The old market, located on the west side of the Great Mosque, and maybe adding to the west-stretching area, was the city's first core. It is located next to the mosque, which confirms its age, which is due to pre-Islam or at least to the lives of the Prophet. It is impossible to imagine that the Prophet ordered the building of a mosque on housing-free land. It makes sense to build the Great Mosque with order from the Prophet and compete with the mosque of Sana'a and the mosque of al-Gand, except there has been a complete lack of political and economic importance. The presence of the market has already been the presence of the city, and the presence of the city has already been the presence of the mosque. At least assuming, the old Dhamar in pre-Islam was the neighborhood of al-Hotah, or land areas surrounding the Great Mosque (fig. 6).
Figure 6. The First Stage: Dhamar City before Islam
Phase 2: Islamic period 10-677 AH (632-1278 AD)
It is not primarily relying on historical sources on the origin and growth of the city. However, it is certainly a new planned strategy in accordance with Islamic thought, in which a place has been organized to contain a central nucleus, including the Great Mosque and the commercial center (fig. 7).
Figure 7. Great Mosque in al-Hotah Neighborhood (photo by the authors, 2024)
Figure 8. Dhamar City through the Period from 10 AH to 677 AH
The residential buildings and streets are formed around the city center and grow in all directions. Since the Great Mosque was built in the lives of the Prophet, according to most historical sources, it is known as the al-Hotah neighbor (Al-Alosy 2009, p. 142). The urban fabric around the Great Mosque flourished and grew in the northern and western directions. It is normal for Yemenis to
follow the Apostle's plan in establishing al-Madinah, where the residential neighborhoods (sectors) around the mosque are distributed, according to tribal affiliation, to every tribe in a particular sector (Othman 1988, pp. 48-49). The urban fabric is likely to contain the palace, which some sources attribute to the current location of the Government Square (Al-Komany 2010, p. 26).
The Great Mosque and the market, which is located in the west, constitute the first trends of the Islamic urban approach to the city. The mosque played a major role in the crystallization and embodiment of Islamic concepts in templates that respond to Islamic thought and achieve connection with the roots of the ancient Yemeni originality in the Islamic template. The city grew and expanded to its peak in the fourth century AH. and widely expanded to the eastern border of the roofed market. After the construction of the Mosque of al-Hussein bin Salamah, who was the Governor of Bani Ziad in 371 AH/ 981 AD (Ibn Al-Diba 1977, pp. 278-279), the urban area grew and expanded around it. On the other hand, the city expanded west through the Islamic eras. In the al-Solihi and al-Ayoubi periods, the government places on the western side, square places, and current market were built. This plan appears in the policy adopted by al-Ayoubi judgment in Sana'a, where the neighborhood of Nahrin was established and the governor's place was built on the southern side (Al-Saadi 1987, p. 250).
It is concluded that the boundaries of the city could be defined at the beginning of Islam and during the first Hijri period. The Great Mosque and the market constitute the first trends of Islamic urban growth. In the fourth century AH, the city grew and expanded its urban area in the regions surrounding the market and al-Hussein Mosque. In the fifth and sixth centuries AH, during the al-Solihi and al-Ayoubi periods, the urban area grew and expanded to the western side of the market as well as the southern side of the al-Hotah neighborhood (fig. 8).
Phase 3: Period 677-780 AH (1278-1378 AD)
In the second half of the seventh century AH, the city expanded towards the west, especially in the northeastern direction of the al-Garajish neighborhood. This is known through the mosques built in this period, which remain to serve their function today, such as the Assad Mosque built at 677 AH (Ibn Al-Diba 1977, p. 361). Many buildings and housing were built around this mosque because it became an urban growth center in that region. In addition, the city expanded into the southern region of the market as well as surrounding regions around the government square. According to historic sources, which mentioned that the Palace of the Sultan al-Muzaffar was built at 709 AH (Al-Komany 2010, p. 26). The city also grew and expanded its urban area in the southwestern regions of al-Hotah neighborhood after the construction of the Emad Eddin Mosque in the eighth century AH (Al-Shamiri 2009, p. 42), which became an urban growth center for the regions surrounding it (fig. 9).
The Waqf policy was formed as part of the al-Ayoubi and al-Mamluk strategies, which tried to stop Fatimid expansion. This policy has played an important role in the restructuring of cities' planning and the emergence of new components introduced to the urban structure of cities. Religious schools and shrines, which spread at the beginning of the Seljuk period, as well as charities such as wells, have stopped their owners from benefiting the city residents (Othman 1988, p. 72). The land, which was suspended for the benefit of society within Yemeni cities, formed an important urban element and was later used to build mosques and gardens. They have been important and functional components as an economic resource for mosques and the people of neighboring residential areas.
It is concluded that the boundaries of the city could be defined during the period from the second half of the seventh century to the second half of the eighth century AH. The city expanded
in the surrounding region of the market, the eastern part of the al-Garajish, as well as the southern regions of the Government Square and the surrounding region of the Emad Eddin Mosque (fig. 10).
Figure 9. Mosque of the Emad Eddin in al-Hotah Neighborhood (photo by the Authors, 2024)
Figure 10. Dhamar City through the Period from 677 AH to 780 AH Phase 4: Period 780-879 AH (1378-1474 AD)
The end of the eighth century A.H. witnessed a significant development in the city's urban structure, where the city expanded and urban growth towards the northern part of the city. This sector witnessed the spread of urbanization around mosques built during this period, and it is currently called al-Mohal neighborhood. This is known through the mosques built in that period, in particular the Mosque of Imam al-Nasser Salah al-Din, which was built at the end of the eighth
century AH (fig. 11). It led to a new urban growth center in the surrounding areas, so buildings spread in nearby areas. The city extended to the regions in the eastern part of the neighborhood when the mosque of al-Salahi was built, which is due to the builder of Imam al-Nasser, Salah al-Din. Moreover, urbanization spread in the regions surrounding the Green Mosque in the neighborhood in the eighth century AH and perhaps before (Al-Komany 2010, p. 255).
From the above, the boundaries of the city could be defined in the period from the end of the eighth century and until the end of the second half of the ninth century AH. The city expanded north in the region currently known as al-Mohal to the city's urban structure. As well as the eastern part of al-Garajish neighborhood, especially the eastern northern part, inside that market and surroundings, and Government Square to the city structure as shown in Figure 12.
Figure 11. Mosque of Imam al-Nasser Salah al-Din (photo by the authors, 2024)
Figure 12. Dhamar City through the Period from 780 AH to 879 AH
Phase 5: Period 879-945 AH (1474-1538 AD)
At the end of the ninth century AH, the city witnessed a great development in the city's urban structure, which expanded through the building of houses around the mosques. In addition, the south-eastern part of al-Garajish neighborhood and the southern region surrounding Government Square were built and flourished as a result of a new urban growth center, including the Mosque of al-Sheikh built in the region during the ninth century AH (Al-Komany 2010, p. 256). The city expanded in the al-Hotah neighborhood and grew in a western direction after the building of the Mosque of al-Motaher (fig. 13) in the ninth century AH (Al-Shamiri 2009, p. 42).
Figure 13. Mosque of al-Motaher in al-Hotah Neighborhood (photo by the authors, 2024)
Figure 14. Dhamar City through the Period from 879 AH to 945 AH
Buildings were built around the region surrounding the mosque and expanded the city to the west and south. In this period, the city was fortified with a wall and gates. Therefore, historical sources indicate that the city was walled in the era of Imam Zaidi, Mohammed al-Serraji, in 895 AH (Al-Razehy 2005, p. 125). However, this wall was removed as a condition for al-Sultan al-Taheri Amer bin Abdul Wahab to remove the siege on the city (Al-Shamiri 2009, p. 35). In the tenth century AH, the city's urbanization grew and expanded toward the west around Amro Mosque, located in the southern part of al-Garajish neighborhood (Al-Komany 2010, p. 109).
From the above, the boundaries of the city could be defined during the period from the last quarter of the ninth century until the end of the first half of the tenth century AH. The urban structure of the city includes the southern regions of Government Square, the south-eastern region of al-Garajish neighborhood, and the southern region of al-Hotah neighborhood (fig. 14).
Phase 6: Period 945-1042 AH (1538-1632 AD)
At the end of the first half of the tenth century AH, the city witnessed urban growth and expansion. The construction of Shams al-Ddin Mosque, also known as al-Shamsiah School, led to the growth and expansion of urban fabric around that region (Al-Shamiri 2009, p. 47). Residential buildings were built around the mosque on all sides and became an urban growth center for regions located to the west and south of the market. In addition, it became the center for the urban growth of the city as a whole because science students come to the city from villages and areas near the city and even from nearby Yemeni cities (fig. 15).
Figure 15. Mosque of al-Shamsiah School (photo by the authors, 2024)
During the first Ottoman period, under the rule of Ottoman governor Behram Pasha, who established Malhaz city (Dhamar Al-Sogara) in 978 AH. The historical sources mentioned that it was established and constructed with its market, palace, and mosque to the south of Dhamar. Moreover, one of the researchers presumes that it is a neighborhood of current Dhamar neighborhoods (Al-Masry 2009, p. 170). Another researcher presumes that the current market is only a Malhaz market mentioned by historians (Al-Alosy 2009, p. 143). In 983 AH / 1575 AD, the Hammamets, located on the southern side of Government Square, were built (Al-Dhamary
2018, p. 272). This led to the growth and expansion of urban areas in the southern regions of the market and Government Square, as well as in the eastern region of the al-Garajish neighborhood. In fact, the Ottoman rule in Yemen was characterized by attention to the civil and architectural aspects and the building of cities, dams, palaces, mosques, and schools.
From the above, the boundaries of the city could be defined in the period from the first half of the tenth century and until the end of the first half of the eleventh century AH. The urban area expanded in the surrounding region to include the market, Square, and al-Shamsiah School (fig.
Figure 16. Dhamar City through the Period from 945 AH to 1042 AH
Phase 7: Period 1042-1382 AH (1632-1962 AD)
The city expanded in the first half of the eleventh century AH, and it grew and developed in the northern part of the al-Garajish neighborhood. The construction of the Prince Sonbel Mosque during the first Ottoman period in 1042 AH was an urban growth center in the region surrounding the mosque (Al-Komany 2010, pp. 148-149). The urban area expanded in the eastern part of the market when the Dadih Dome Mosque was built (fig. 17) in the eleventh century AH (Al-Shamiri 2009, p. 44). In addition, the expansion of urbanization in the surrounding region of al-Qasr Mosque, built by Pasha Ali al-Jazairi in the eleventh century AH, in the current palace neighborhood (Al-Komany 2010, p. 146).
On the other hand, the city grew and expanded in the north-eastern part of the neighborhood of al-Hotah, when the neighborhood of the Jews was isolated by Judge Hussein bin Dhafan in the eleventh century AH (Al-Komany 2010, p. 25). The city also expanded in the al-Garajish neighborhood as well as the northern regions of the cemetery during the second Ottoman rule. Then al-Zaidi judgment ruled that after the Ottoman exit from Yemen, which was known in the Kingdom of al-Motawakelyah, it began the renewal and maintenance of most mosques and public buildings. The city was considered an important religious and political center, and a large number of scientists studied at al-Shamsiah School and the Great Mosque.
16).
From the above, the boundaries of the city could be defined during the period from the first half of the eleventh century until the end of the second half of the fourteenth century AH. Urban growth is concentrated in regions around the market and Government Square areas, and it focuses on religious buildings, government facilities, and residential facilities (fig. 18).
Figure 17. Mosque of the Dadih Dome in the Eastern Part of the Market (photo by the
authors, 2024)
Figure 18. Dhamar City through the Period from 1042 AH to 1382 AH
7. Conclusions and Recommendations
This study adopted information from historical sources and a few archaeological sources. It tried to disclose the first roots and the successive stages in the origin and development of the ancient Dhamar city. The study has reached a set of results, as follows:
• The main factors that affected the emergence of the city are the geographical factors on the road of trade convoys, the path of Hajj, and the mediators in most of the governorates of Yemen. The security factor, which is formed by the fortresses of Herran in the north and Dhamar al-Qarn in the south, and the environmental factor are the availability of water and the moderate climate. The economic factor is agriculture and trade. The Great Mosque represents the religious factor. The political factor is a middle region between the kingdoms of Sheba and Himyire and a median region between the centers of Islamic governorates.
• Locations of the large cities were chosen according to the main trade road, which attaches the Aden city on the Arabian Sea with the Mediterranean Cities, and its growth is compatible with the road connecting the north of the city with its south.
• The important cities that originated on the commercial convoys road were placed on flat land, such as Sana'a, Dhamar, Saadah, and others. Nevertheless, the cities that originated for military and political purposes were placed in immunized and high mountains.
• The first physical component that can be trusted in the emergence of the city is its mosque (the Great Mosque). It is the center of its origin and its growth and evolution as an ancient Islamic city. The market comes as a second definition of the city and determines its origin and growth in the pre-Islam period as a commercial station.
• The city has maintained its cohesion, continuity, values, and urban principles through thousands of years in its neighborhoods, streets, buildings, and building details until the present.
• The study confirmed the research hypothesis on the origin of the city as a commercial station on the convoy's road that penetrates the Yemeni plateau. The study also confirmed the hypothesis of the creation of the city when the convoy's road flourished through the Yemeni plateau.
• The current study confirmed the research hypothesis that the current city site grew up in the pre-Islam period, and the first city seed was its market. The city has been famous and has become an important area and a commercial station located on the roads of commercial convoys around the third century AD.
• The study recommends maintaining archaeological and heritage areas as a national wealth that can be exploited to achieve sustainable development in communities.
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