CC BY
94 Степень Результаты интегративны- в Конкретизация интегративности- связи с тем, что составляет способностей- описание дифференцированности предмет опроса носит феноменальный
характер, поскольку
автором категорий является респондент
5 Основание Вера в себя, убеждение. Основано на прошлом
опыте («жизненная»
верифицированность, а не вера)
Различия исследовательских конструктов представляются достаточно определенными. Представленность субъекта в себе самом в подростковом возрасте носит функцию самораскрытия: подросток обнаруживает и фиксирует у себя интересы, склонности, способности. Развитие личности через внутренний диалог в опосредовано созданием им новых смыслов, трансформацией смысловой структуры личности.
На наш взгляд, проблема самораскрытия способностей имеет перспективный ресурс и нуждается в дальнейших исследованиях дифференциально-психологического характера.
Литература
1. Теплов Б.М. Проблемы индивидуальных различий. М., 1961. С. 11.
2. Бахтин М.М. Вопросы литературы и эстетики. М.: Художественная литература, 1975. 504 с.
3. Лэнгле А. Что движет человеком? Экзистенциально-аналитическая теория эмоций. М.: Генезис, 2018. 235 с.
4. Бернс Р. Развитие Я-концепции и воспитание. М.: Прогресс, 1986. 420 с.
5. Susanne Schwab, Carmen L. A. Zurbriggen, Martin Venetz Agreement among student, parent and teacher ratings of school inclusion: A multitrait-multimethod analysis Journal of School Psychology 82:1-16 October 2020. DOI: 10.1016/j.jsp.2020.07.003
6. Bandura, A. Self-efficacy: toward a unifying theory of behavioral change // Psychological Review. 1977. V. 84 (2). Pp. 191- 215. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.84.2.191
7. Bandura, A. Exercise of personal and collective efficacy in changing societies // Self-Efficacy in Changing Societies. Cambridge University Press, 1995. P. 1-45. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511527692.003
8. Шиленкова Л.Н Самоэффективность в образовательном процессе (обзор зарубежных исследований). Электронный журнал Современная зарубежная психология 2020. Том 9. № 3. С. 69-78. DOI: https://doi.org/10.17759/jmfp.2020090306 ISSN: 2304-4977 (online)
A REVIEW OF JAPANESE LITERATURE ON THE PSYCHOTHERAPISTS' SUBJECTIVITY - WHAT IS THE DEFINITION OF THE PSYCHOTHERAPISTS'
SUBJECTIVITY?
Yusuke Yamaguchi, Japan University of Economics
DOI:
A literature review of case study papers on the psychotherapists' subjectivity in Japan was conducted in this paper. After reading 12 references carefully, therapists' subjectivity may be defined
as the therapist's individuality, independent judgment, and reality of experience, which are transformed by the therapist's endeavors and experiences with the client in psychotherapy and outside the therapy room. In conclusion, four future tasks were recommended.
Keywords: the psychotherapists' subjectivity, literature review, case study papers in Japan
Introduction
Recently in Japan, the psychotherapists' subjectivity has attracted attention. Hironaka [1] considered therapists' subjectivity as "the most essential and important theme beyond the school of psychotherapy" and further argued that a therapists' manner of dealing with subjectivity "constitutes the base of psychotherapy." However, therapists' subjectivity has yet to be defined. Assuming an individual feels a particular way may be far removed from the particular individual's actual feeling [2], it is imperative to define therapists' subjectivity so as to develop the practice and research of psychotherapy.
When defining therapists' subjectivity, three factors need to be considered. First, the characteristics of cases in which a therapist's subjectivity is involved have to be explored because in the process of psychotherapy, such characteristics are intertwined with various factors such as therapeutic structures. Therefore, it is imperative to clarify the conditions under which the therapist's subjectivity is relevant to psychotherapy. Second, it is important that therapists recognize their own subjectivity. Since psychotherapy occurs in a relational context, the therapist makes observations about the changes the client experiences as the therapist or an observer so as to capture the changes that arise from the relationship [3]. Accordingly, it is believed that therapists' subjectivity can be understood by focusing on their experience, which they observe and are conscious of. Effects that are specific to psychotherapy and employ a therapist's subjectivity should constitute part of such a definition.
It is believed that case studies are the richest source of data on therapists' subjectivity because case studies reproduce the "reality of clinical situations" and are created through "personal work" in which the authors themselves reflect on and capture their experiences [4]. In addition, case studies have been emphasized in clinical psychology in Japan for a long time and are also being re-evaluated throughout the world [5]. Consequently, an examination of case studies is meaningful so as to utilize findings that are unique to Japan.
Accordingly, a literature review of case study papers on therapists' subjectivity in Japan was conducted.
Methodology
In June 2021, Cinii Articles was employed to search the literature. The search terms included subjectivity, psychotherapy, therapy, counseling, therapist, psychotherapist, counselor, clinical psychologist, and licensed psychologist. After excluding duplicate search results, 40 references were found. Subsequently, the following criteria were employed to select the references: peer-reviewed articles, case studies of individual psychotherapy, and descriptions related to the therapist's subjectivity. Accordingly, 12 references were found. After reading them carefully, the characteristics of the case studies, that is, therapeutic structures, experiences in which a therapist's subjectivity was recognized, and descriptions of the effects of therapists' subjectivity were examined and summarized in tables.
Results
The characteristics of the cases are presented in Table 1. In seven of the cases, the client consulted with the therapist once a week at the most. The duration of treatment ranged between seven months and two years and 10 months. With the exception of the literature related to the therapist's relationship with the supervisor, not much was noted about the psychological support and collaboration other than psychotherapy [6]. Medical institutions of which there were six were the most common support institutions. Psychoanalysis was the most common orientation and was utilized with eight clients.
A classification of experiences in which therapists' subjectivity was evident is displayed in Table 2. The experiences were classified into four broad categories. The sense of losing subjectivity indicated that the therapist was involved in the client's words, actions, and interpersonal relationships during the process of psychotherapy. It appeared that therapists who lost their subjectivity were unable to express their individuality, make independent decisions about treatment, and realize their own experiences. Maintaining subjectivity reveals that therapists maintain their subjectivity by attempting to understand and respond to their clients in accordance with psychotherapy theory. Mixed subjectivity means that therapists mix with their clients during psychotherapy. The latter falls on a continuum between the sense of losing subjectivity and maintaining subjectivity. Recovery of subjectivity indicates that therapists' subjectivity is recovered through their endeavors and own experience of being helped outside the therapy room.
Table 2 Experiences in which therapists subjectivity is recognized
Broad Category
Narrow Category
Description
Losing individuality
The sense of losing subjectivity
Losing independent decisions
Mr.N had a carefree relationship, coming and going at the appointed time. I felt that the existence of the author would be erased by Mr. N's selfish world. (id2)
As a therapist, I lost my individuality as I played various roles as a recipient of patient transferences, which became a process of being robbed of an opportunity to exercise initiative and creativity, in other words, subjectivity. (id4)
I realized that I, who was regarded as an agent by the client shared A's thoughts and was regarded as a natural being to act on her behalf. I became aware how my own subjective movement had been blocked
until then, (idl 1)_
In fact the therapist could only nod her head during the interview, which also frustrated A. This was a vicious circle. The therapist had lost the perspective of being able to understand the situation objectively and was overwhelmed by fear and anxiety about A. (id8)
The following week, she also expressed frustration and strongly criticized me for the confusion caused by me leaving it up to her doctor to decide when to resume the therapy. During this time, I continued to think about what was going on with her and re-examined the transference relationship. I realized that I had become the one who could not make independent decisions. (id9)
Maintaining subjectivity
It is probable that there was a significant the nature of "things" before being"people" before the vivid experience of a new encounter with one client was conducted. (id4)
I was struck by an indescribable eerie feeling and helplessness as though I had become something that I Intense experiences of was not. It was at this moment when I had an intense experienc e for the first time in my body of the feeling a feeling that is not of being caught up in projective identification and losing subjectivity, which I had read about in the literature mine and understood intellectually. (id9)
At the time an intense fear suddenly attacked his whole body and his mind went blank. As he listened and examined him for approximately 10 minutes, he found that just before he felt fear, the words I am not necessary occupied his mind. At the same time, an inexplicable emptiness consumed his body and he felt afraid because of it. (idl 0)
In addition, the strong attachment to the therapist that was observed from the first session was an over-adptive defense to prevent people from looking into her inner fife. The therapist felt that the client was afraid of being seen or heard. Therefore, rather than confronting her as an object, the therapist tried to meet her as though the therapist were a frame of protection and could provide a place where she could express herself freely without anxiety. (id3)
Assessment based intervention
I was able to recover some of my subjectivity as I came to interpret what A was projecting onto me and excluding from the external world and to interpret it as her own. (idl 1)
On the other hand, the therapist's subjectivity is included in denying the client's cognition and behavior, which at that time was based on his own assessment, (idl 2)
Mixed subjectivity
In #22, when the session with A, who was confused by the death of his junior in a motorcycle ac cident, turned into a quarrel, the counselor expressed frankly, "I don't want you to die." (idl)
For a while after the therapy started Mr .N's real self was secretly shut up and escaped from the Being resonant with interaction, and I was a part of it. However, by symbolically recognizing the direct relationship that
clients appeared in the vial of fish sauce and the dream, he could have become a listener and reader at the same
time. (id2)
The reason why the therapist had such a positive attitude is not purely because of his personal factors or countertransference, but rather because he was responding to A:s own latent shaking as in the third sqiriggle(=9): where he depicted a catfish associated with an earthquake. (id7)
At this time, the client asks the therapist to join in the play with her, and we get the impression that the therapist has begun to exist as an object. They meet in the image of putting the client looking at the world on the therapist s lap and playing together. (id3)
Responding to the client's invitation
The client wants to be seen and heard by the therapist. The therapist meets this client by facing her and looking after her. (id3)
In the first half, there were frequent interruptions in the therapeutic structure. Although I asked myself what was wrong with the therapy, I couldn't even figure out why. I was waiting for the right time to work with the client. During the second break of four months, the therapist talked to the client for the first time and
Approach of the client this led to a return -visit. (id5) in the process of
The recovery of subjectivity
intennption
The therapist's experience of being helped by others
After that, A forgot to make an appointment for the therapy and did not do so for three weeks. The therapist thought it was necessary to be proactive and tell A that he needed a therapy session. Consequently, he called A on his cell phone in the second week and mote a letter in the third week. After this, he started to pay more attention to A's subjectivity in therapy. (id6)
It is thought that relative dependency has begun to emerge in which therapist's own subjectivity is set in motion slightly, although the therapist is basically heavily dependent on the supervisor. (id8)
It is likely that therapists who are dependent on supervisors recover their subjectivity whle sometimes wavering and amplifying their dependent aspects. Thereafter, the subjectivity may be recovered more clearly. (id8)
It is thought that the therapist's experience of being helped as a human being contributed to the recovery of the therapist's subjectivity, which led to a change in the relationship between A and the therapist. (id8)
The effects of the therapists' subjectivity are presented in Table 3. These effects were classified into three broad categories: while change in the therapeutic relationship and therapeutic change in clients referred to changes in the client, professional development of therapists related to changes the therapists experienced.
Table 3 The effects of therapists' subjectivity
Broad Category Narrow Category
Description
Change in the therapeutic relationship
Establishment of the therapeutic relationship
Maintenance of the therapeutic relationship
Mr. N began to talk symbolically about his way of relating. He appeared to start relating to others in fear. (id2)
The tension between them eased and through this encounter, the therapeutic space became more real and regained its vitality. (id4)
It is difficult to establish a relationship with a client who has such a new consciousness and only waits for her to come to psychotherapy voluntarily. Although it is not orthodox, a relationship may have been established only when I showed some honest feelings as a subject to her questions. (id5) It is my opinion that the author's self-reflection on the countertransference reaction to Ms. A s projective identification and the fact that he stayed in the self-reflection activity rather than talcing any action supported her self-reflection activity or at least did not interfere with it by not verbalizing it. (idl 0)
Change in emotional experiences
Therapeutic change in clients
Change in subjectivity
In psychotherapy, it is generally believed that the therapist should avoid direction, maintain neutrality, and control unconscious influences such as countertransference. In the present case, the therapist consciously or unconsciously deviated from such principles and took a positive attitude to cause movement within A. By receiving this influence, a flow of amplification of his inner movement was generated (id7)
As I began to interpret transference with a greater sense of reality, I believe that she gradually began to experience her anger toward me subjectively. (id9) A two-party relationship in which each party takes initialive and interacts with each other would have evoked very strong persecutory anxiety for A whose thoughts are predominantly paranoid schizoid (idl 1)
And such an interaction may have led to a challenging experience for the client. (id!2)_
La the first stage of the case. I sometimes had art image that the client was in my womb. In the second stage, I had the impression that her autonomous subjectivity was nurtured as the state of fusion was gradually untied and the therapist began to exist as an object. (id3)
In this case, as a living person, what the therapist feels is shown to the client. It can be said that she is established as a subject who feels something internally. (id5)
In the present case, when the client could no longer act as a client in psychotherapy1 due to the therapist's subjective movement, the lack of self was recognized and a subject who was aware of it emerged (id6)
It is thought that A s subjective movement was encouraged more because the therapist recovered her subjectivity and became a person who could receive A' s subjective movement. (idS)
Finally, what I would like to emphasize most strongly is that in the therapy of this case, as Mr. A talked about and expressed himself, the counselor also recalled his past, talked about himself, and opened up to Mr. A. Consequently, both parties were transformed. In this case, the transformation on the part of the therapist is an awakening to the idea of living his own life as a. true counselor (companion), while relating to each of the irreplaceable clients he met through fate, (idl)
It is thought that the therapist wiD be able to think about the suggestions from the supervisor independently and will be able to make use of the supervisor's suggestions in actual therapy sessions. CidE)
From the above perspective, in their psychotherapy, it is necessary for Change in view of therapists themselves to overcome their preconceptions about psychotherapy. It psychotherapy seems that it is the therapist's subjectivity and subjective presence in the therapy
that helps them to do so. (id6)
Professional development of
Acquisition of professional identih1
Mastery of techniques
Discussion
The results of the frequency and duration of treatment as well as support institutions revealed that therapists' subjectivity is particularly relevant in the orthodox psychotherapy. Although it is possible that this may have been due to limited space, the reason thereof may have been because the authors were conscious of reading the client's changes from the events in the therapy room. Although the therapists were biased toward psychoanalysis, there were examples of diverse orientations, which may suggest that therapists' subjectivity is evident in a number of psychotherapy orientations. Two positions can be found in research that explores effective factors in psychotherapy: one emphasizes specific factors and the other common factors [7]. The results of this study suggest that therapists' subjectivity may be a common factor.
Four broad categories were found in relation to experiences in which the therapists' subjectivity was recognized. It is noteworthy that therapists' individuality, independent judgment, and reality of experiences varied. Not only interaction with clients but also therapists' endeavors and/or experiences of being helped outside the therapy room triggered these experiences. Therefore, it was deemed imperative to shed light on therapists' subjectivity from a broad perspective.
The effects of therapists' subjectivity were classified into three broad categories. Because therapists' subjectivity contributes to the construction of the therapeutic relationship, the view that therapists' subjectivity "constitutes the base of psychotherapy" [1] is supported. Furthermore, because professional development of therapists was found, it appears that the effect peculiar to psychotherapy with regard to therapists' subjectivity is that it transforms not only the client but also the therapist.
Accordingly, therapists' subjectivity may be defined as the therapist's individuality, independent judgment, and reality of experience, which are transformed by the therapist's endeavors and experiences with the client in psychotherapy and outside the therapy room. Subsequently, it was hypothesized that psychotherapy that employs the therapist's subjectivity brings about change for both client and therapist.
In conclusion, four future tasks are recommended. First, a review of foreign literature is necessary. Since this study focused on Japanese literature, it is crucial that comparisons with international case studies are made. Second, it is essential that more case studies are accumulated. It is recommended that future research includes case studies of various orientations and the influence of events outside the therapy room. It is envisaged that the accumulation of case studies will shed light on how to employ therapists' subjectivity to help clients. Third, it is recommended that research that targets therapists should be conducted so as to acquire knowledge that could not be examined in this study. Finally, it is recommended that research of this nature be conducted in conjunction with studies in other areas such as the integration of psychotherapy, proficiency of therapists, and professional development.
Literature
1 Hironaka, Masami 2020 Subjectivity and Commitment Sanno Institute of Education (ed.) Therapist's Subjectivity and Commitment: What Moves at the Base of Psychological Clinical Practices. Sogensha, 9-25.
2 Kira, Yasuyuki 2002 The sense of subjectivity and its activation-departure and development from experiential psychotherapy. Kyushu University Press.
37
3 Asami, Kenichiro, and Nojima, Kazuhiko 2001 A examination on the concept of "Syutaisei" (self-direction) in the clinical psychology Kyushu University Psychological Research, 2, 53-58.
4 Iwakabe, Shigeru 2005 A meta-analysis of case Japan Society of Family Psychology (ed.) Counseling for Family Violence, Annual Review of Family Psychology, 23, 154-169.
5 Yamamoto, Tsutomu 2018 Case Study Approach and Strategy: A Reflective Approach to Psychological Clinical Practice. Sogensha.
6 Kurosaki, Izumi 2013 The Process of the Dependence on Supervision. Japanese Journal of Counseling Science, 46(3), 148-156.
7 Sugihara, Yasushi 2020 What are the effective factors in psychotherapy?-controversy over specific factors and common factors. Archives of student support in Kyoto University General Student Support Center, 49, 1-13.
Б. М.ТЕПЛОВ И СОВРЕМЕННАЯ ПСИХОЛОГИЯ В ВОЕННОМ ДЕЛЕ
Утлик Э. П. Москва (Россия), доктор психологических наук, профессор, профессор кафедры психологии, Военный университет, e1937@yandex.ru
DOI:
Раскрываются идеи Б.М. Теплова о практическом мышлении управленческого типа и их развитие. Труд Б.М. Теплова «Ум полководца», опубликованный впервые в 1943 г. под названием «Ум и воля военачальника», ознаменовал возрождение военно-психологической мысли в России. Этот труд существенно повлиял на развитие теорий мышления, личности и воли, на методы историко-психологического исследования. Подчеркивается прогресс в развитии теории практического мышления в направлении практического психологического интеллекта.
Ключевые слова. Интеллект, мышление, воля, боевые качества, практический психолог, конкретная психология, практически-психологический ум, способности, одаренность.
B. M. TEPLOV AND MODERN PSYCHOLOGY IN MILITARY
Utlik E.P. Moscow (Russia), Doctor of Psychology, Professor, Professor of the Department of Psychology, Military University
The ideas of B.M. Teplov's on practical thinking of a managerial type and their development. Presented ideas of B.M. Teplov's on practical thinking of a managerial type and their development. The work of B.M. Teplov's "The Mind of a Commander", published for the first time in 1943 under the title "The Mind and Will of a Military Leader", marked the revival of military-psychological thought in Russia. This work significantly influenced the development of theories of thinking, personality and will, the methods of historical and psychological research. The progress in the development of the theory of practical thinking in the direction of practical psychological intelligence is emphasized.
Keywords: Intelligence, thinking, will, fighting qualities, practical psychologist, concrete psychology, practical psychological mind, abilities, giftedness.
