A RESEARCH ON THE ROLE OF WOMEN IN ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT IN THE BRICS COUNTRIES

Pandey M. K.; Sergeeva I. G.

DOI: 10.29141/2658-5081-2022-23-1-3 JEL classification: A10, A12, A13

Maneesh Kumar Pandey ITMO University, Saint Petersburg, Russia Irina G. Sergeeva ITMO University, Saint Petersburg, Russia

A research on the role of women in economic development in the BRICS countries

Abstract. Women account for almost half of the world population, however, their contribution to the economic development is rather limited due to significant gender imparity manifested in different aspects: from participation in decision-making and employment to incomes and property. The paper aims to explore and assess the potential of women empowerment to the benefits of economic growth in the BRICS countries. Methodologically, the paper relies on the theory of gender order and the interdisciplinary approach to the research of gender inequality. The study applies methods of systematisation, content analysis, and comparison of time series. By analysing a range of international organisations' reports, the paper provides insight in the state of affairs with gender inequality in the BRICS countries looking at its key characteristics in the economic, educational, social, and political spheres. Using the World Bank data for 2000-2021, the paper examines women's empowerment according to the dimensions accounted for in the UN Gender Inequality Index: empowerment, health, and labour market. The findings indicate that the BRICS countries are far behind in terms of delivering real justice to women's empowerment. Among the five countries China and Russia seem to be putting the strongest efforts to reduce gender gap, Brazil demonstrates good dynamics, but has a long way to go, while South Africa and India confront many deep-rooted problems that strongly thwart their progress. The theoretical and practical significance of the study lies in the consolidation of the data on the problem of gender imparity as well as their interpretation in the context of supporting gender equal societies in the BRICS countries to promote the global spatial economic development.

Keywords: economic development; BRICS; gender inequality; women; empowerment.

For citation: Pandey M. K., Sergeeva I. G. (2022). A research on the role of women in economic development in the BRICS countries. Journal of New Economy, vol. 23, no. 1, pp. 43-65. DOI: 10.29141/2658-5081-2022-23-1-3 Received January 21, 2022

М. К. Пандей Университет ИТМО, г. Санкт-Петербург, Российская Федерация

И. Г. Сергеева Университет ИТМО, г. Санкт-Петербург, Российская Федерация

Исследование роли женщин в экономическом развитии стран БРИКС

Аннотация. Женщины составляют почти половину населения земного шара, однако их вклад в экономическое развитие ограничен ввиду гендерного неравенства в разных сферах - от участия в принятии решений и занятости до получения доходов и приобретения

собственности. Исследование направлено на оценку потенциала расширения прав и возможностей женщин в интересах экономического роста в странах БРИКС. Методологическую основу статьи составили теория гендерного порядка и междисциплинарный подход к исследованию проблематики гендерного неравенства. В работе применялись методы систематизации, контент-анализа и сравнения временных рядов. Информационной базой послужили данные Всемирного банка и отчеты международных организаций за 2000-2021 гг. Проанализированы показатели, которые характеризуют учитываемые в Индексе гендерного неравенства ООН факторы: расширение прав и возможностей женщин, их репродуктивное здоровье и степень экономической активности. Полученные результаты показывают несоответствие возможностей мужчин и женщин в экономической, образовательной, социальной и политической сферах стран БРИКС и отставание этих стран в достижении гендерного равноправия. Китай и Россия прилагают большие усилия для сокращения гендерного разрыва, Бразилия демонстрирует хорошую динамику, хотя лишь вступила на путь изменений, в то время как Южная Африка и Индия сталкиваются с множеством глубоко укоренившихся проблем, которые мешают их прогрессу. Теоретическая и практическая значимость исследования заключается в консолидации данных по проблематике гендерного неравенства, а также их интерпретации в разрезе перспектив обеспечения гендерного равноправия в странах БРИКС для достижения глобального пространственного экономического развития.

Ключевые слова: экономическое развитие; БРИКС; гендерное неравенство; женщины; права женщин.

Для цитирования: Pandey M. K., Sergeeva I. G. (2022). A research on the role of women in economic development in the BRICS countries. Journal of New Economy, vol. 23, no. 1, pp. 43-65. DOI: 10.29141/2658-5081-2022-23-1-3 Дата поступления: 21 января 2022 г.

Introduction

Women empowerment is defined generally as a process where women are agents in the "continuous cycle of enhancing abilities to control choices, decisions and actions" [Al-Dajani, Marlow, 2013]. Women's equality and empowerment is one of the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDG 5) and integral to all dimensions of inclusive and sustainable development. Women and girls' social and economic empowerment contributes to their ability to pursue their right to a healthy life.

In all societies, power is not equally distributed1. For socioeconomic development of any country, there are two vital factors. First is the promotion of economic growth and the second one is the empowerment of its citizens, which needs to be highlighted. However, gender imparity remains one of the most urgent socioeconomic problems in many countries that needs to be addressed and resolved. According to 2020 global statistics, women comprise 49.6 % of the world population, yet they have fewer opportunities to control their lives and make decisions2.

1 UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs. Transforming our world: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. https://sdgs.un.org/2030agenda.

2 World Bank (2020). Population, female (% of total population). https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.POP. TOTL.FE.ZS.

As a result, they own only about one percent of the world's wealth1. Moreover, women contributed to less than 40 % of global employment, at this 75 % of the employed women work part-time hours [Aleksynska, Eberlein, 2016]. Though the socioeconomic condition of women in many underdeveloped and developing countries is miserable, international organisations and global think tanks believe there is a chance that women can play a greater role in the development of national economies, because they can contribute toward achieving inclusive growth, eliminating poverty and improving living standards as well as livelihoods [Sarfaraz, Faghih, Majd, 2014]. Indeed, gender inequality creates hurdles for women's social uplift, which further hinders opportunities of women's participation in the global economy and has resulted in women's role in the economy not being fully realised. The fact that women and girls keep doing the majority of unpaid care and housework is one important reason why they tend to be less employed than men and get predominantly part-time jobs [Marcatelli, 2015].

Most international organisations such as UN WOMEN, OECD, UNIFEM, etc. use Gender Parity Index (GPI), Gender Empowerment Measure (GEM) and Gender Development Index (GDI) as most common measurements to evaluate women's empowerment. However, as per Dijkstra [2002], these measurements do not fully capture gender equality but capture levels of achievement or punishment associated with inequality. The Saudi government, seeing female entrepreneurship as a way to strengthen both the family unit and the economy, has recently created programmes to encourage more women to become business owners. Yet few women have taken advantage of these programmes to date [Basaffar, Niehm, Bosselman, 2018]. In every country, there are many factors affecting gender imparity such as education status, social status, geographical status, demographic conditions, ultra-religious situation in a country. The major types of empowerments, which play a vital role in the socioeconomic development of women society in any country, include educational, economic, social, and political ones. However, the main precursor to these empowerments is educational empowerment. Therefore, higher education has a pivotal role in sustainable socioeconomic development through the generation and transmission of knowledge. Education also brings a reduction in inequalities and functions as a means of improving women's status within the family [Sarojadevi, Subramanian, 2016]. Hence, educational empowerment provides opportunity for women to achieve other empowerments. The potential of women's empowerment can be seen through different social and economic indicators released by big organisations such as United Nations, World Bank, OECD, etc. The analysis of these data clearly signifies that women's empowerment is one of the main factors behind the socioeconomic prosperity of the emerging economies. Moreover, the countries, which are genuinely acknowledging, making, and supporting women's empowerment by implementing various policy reforms for improving women's status, are growing faster than those countries, which are underplaying women's empowerment issues. Many philosophers and social reformers have emphasised this need: "To educate your women first and leave them to themselves, they will tell you what reforms are necessary" (Swami Vivekananda); "You educate a man; you educate a man. You educate a woman; you educate a generation" (Brigham Young).

Science and technology could be a great tool for providing solutions to many problems faced by rural women. One objective for today's global market is the targeting of women as labour, achieved by using their domestic spaces within the sub-contracting system, especially in the low-income settlements of Third World cities [Mahmud, 2003]. A good example of using science and technology in women's empowerment is the Self-Employed Women's Association (SEWA) in India, which runs many community-learning centres, where they train rural women and make them able to use innovations such as satellite and telecommunication to

1 Women hold just one percent of the world's wealth: World Bank. https://www.huffpost.com/entry/women-make-only-1-percent-wealth_n_969439.

access agricultural extension, soil and pest analysis, and health diagnostic expertise even in remote rural areas1.

Financial independence allows women to rely on themselves for their survival: "Financial independence brings the power of decision-making and thus it empowers a woman" (Nalini Misra Tyabji). They do not need to ask anyone anything. It gives them the liberty to lead the life and gain the experience that they want. It gives women a sense of equality2. According to the United Nations, because of male biased governments' legislation, male centric company policies, and deep-rooted misogyny, in most part of the world, women are less likely to get chance to lead successful and financially secured lives. In order to reduce this gender biased practices, UN is putting effort to support women through providing them with more access to digital financial tools to play a greater and decisive role in the development of global economy3.

Those nations that overlook or create obstacles to providing opportunities for women, are losing the chances to tap into women potential and wasting the huge amount of human capital to the detriment of overall economic development. Therefore, this article tries to accentuate the situation of women education and labour participation in the BRICS countries, and explore their implications for economic development. Moreover, the article also offers suggestions to governments on the ways to mitigate the constraints by implementing policy reforms with strong convictions to uplift the women's empowerment.

Major types of empowerments

There are four major types of empowerment means needed to support holistic growth of women across the world.

Educational empowerment of women: "We educate women because it is smart. We educate women because it changes the world" (Drew Gilpin Faust).

Education is the most crucial milestone in women's empowerment, because it enables them to respond to challenges, confront their traditional role and change their lives. Education does not only educate, but also help realise their importance in the society. Occupational achievement, self-awareness and satisfaction are among the many things that will be ensured by the effective use of education. Hence, education is a tool for a woman to define her individual identity and enter every sphere of society on her own. Moreover, education supports making women aware of their rights and developing the confidence to claim them. Greater access to educational and occupational resources increases women's chances of professional development, creating a larger pool of women eligible for power positions such as political office [Alexander, Welzel, 2010].

Social empowerment of women: "Countries and Nations which do not respect women have never become great nor will ever be in future" (Swami Vivekananda).

A critical aspect of social empowerment of women is the improvement of gender equality. A definition of empowerment of women and girls can be found in The Royal Tropical Institute, which interprets it as the expansion of choice and strengthening of voice through the transformation of power relations by ensuring equal access and control over resources and having supportive institutional structures in place. Economic analyses now demonstrate that low levels of education and training, poor health and nutritional status, and limited access to resources not only repress women's quality of life, but limit productivity and hinder economic efficiency and growth [Shah, Saurabh, 2015]. The fact that women constitute half the entire population of the

1 FAO. Science and technology offers great opportunities for rural women's empowerment. https://www.fao.org/ gender/insights/detail/en/c/51744/ .

2 Kathuria Ch. Let's talk money: Why financial freedom is important for women. https://www.shethepeople.tv/ news/lets-talk-money-why-financial-freedom-is-important-for-women/ .

3 UN News. First Person: Fighting for women's financial freedom. https://news.un.org/en/story/2021/03/1086162 .

country makes empowering them an active part of all development initiatives in the country [Bayeh, 2016]. In the social and professional arena, government support for women's empowerment helps utilize their potentials to spur sustainable development.

Economic empowerment of women: "One of the factors a country's economy depends on is human capital. If you don't provide women with adequate access to health care, education and employment, you lose at least half of your potential. So, gender equality and women empowerment bring huge economic benefits" (Michelle Bachelet).

Economic empowerment of women implies a better quality of material life for a sustainable livelihood of women. Several initiatives are being taken by governments and international organisations to empower women economically by ensuring the accessibility of a full range of suitable financial services for underprivileged women, which are critical to the fulfilment of their economic and social aspirations. Countries with higher overall levels of entrepreneurial activity tended to have higher relative proportions of female participation. These findings are still seen when looking at the effect produced by the patterns of entrepreneurial activity on countries' economic development [Baughn, Chua, Neupert, 2006]. A review of recent interventions aimed at women's economic empowerment found that the most successful are those at the micro level focusing on increasing savings, providing childcare, conditional cash transfers, and job services [Buvinic, O'Donnell, 2016]. Obviously, implications of improved financial security can be visible in the other areas of women's lives. For instance, women enjoy more affordable health care, better education for their children, and are more likely to perform a leadership role in their communities. Moreover, there is a strong correlation between economic empowerment and women's legal rights.

Political empowerment of woman: "Politics is a potent way to empower women" (Preneet Kaur).

Political empowerment of women can significantly enhance their socioeconomic participation. Political representation can help address and settle women's social and economic problems in more efficient manner. Women's empowerment understood as political empowerment is fundamentally related to broad democratic political development and social change associated with economic development [Hornset, de Soysa, 2021]. In other words, through an equal and fair political process, a woman's voice can be heard and laws can accommodate her interests. The active participation and equality will allow women to influence decision-making initiatives, which lay the foundation for development, peace and democracy1. The existence of women political leaders is favouring the participation of women in the political decision-making and governance.

Further, we present a holistic view of the women's empowerment in BRICS countries by analysing where do they stand in terms of gender parity, how that impacts their economic growth, and what potential the future holds for women's empowerment in these states. We provide insight in women's empowerment in the BRICS countries by looking at the key criteria covering political representation, health care, formal economy, and education. Thus, we aspire to offer a toolkit for students, women entrepreneurs and professionals worldwide to help them build a basic understanding of this topic and make use of it during future engagements with research in this field.

Background study: Women in the BRICS countries

Brazil. Historically, the role of women in society in Brazil is strongly captivated by the male-controlled Iberian culture, in which women are treated as inferior to men in family and community relations. In contemporary world, Brazil is considered the epicentre of feminine renaissance

1 Community of Democracies. About Regional Consultation on Political Empowerment of Women. https://com-munity-democracies.org/regional-consultation-on-political-empowerment-of-women/.

and successfully conducted the most organised and effective women's movement in Latin America, which over the 20th century have achieved remarkable success in endorsing and protecting women's legal, social, and political rights. Women in Brazil enjoy the same legal rights and responsibilities, which is clearly reflected in the fifth article of the Brazilian Constitution of 1988. The World Economic Forum has published a study that shows Brazil has virtually eliminated gender differences in education and health, though women are lagging behind in wages and political influence1. Although Brazil has overcome and eliminated many obstacles from the path of the women's empowerment and rights over the past century, women in Brazil keep on facing significant gender inequality, which is mostly visible in rural areas of Northeast Brazil. Gender dynamics within the family core influences the children's perception of gender hierarchies a lot, which can result in repeating patterns of gender inequality and reinforcement of pre-assigned roles for women in society [Scherf, Zanatta, Mello, 2020].

Brazil has been putting great efforts in the gender equality campaign for the last two decades. It is seen from its political pledge to reform policies for women's socioeconomic parity, more strong and transparent legal frameworks as well as an efficient procedural execution of the legal frameworks on gender-based violence, and improvements in women's endowments2. Over the past decade, gender gaps in labour force participation and employment in Brazil have changed little, signalling persistent obstacles to equitable access to economic opportunities. The gender pay gap is not a new phenomenon in Brazil. Since an increase in female participation in the labour market, the gap has remained a persistent problem that has generated a wide range of studies on the topic [Martins, 2015]. Domestic workers are becoming increasingly organised through global professional networks and trade unions, although domestic labour remains a significant and poorly regulated form of women work. Currently, the share of women in the Brazilian labour market is 65 % compared to 85 % to that of men. Nonetheless, gender-based wage difference in Brazil is still huge, women earn approximately 25-30 % less than their male counterparts as compared by regional averages and this situation is further aggravated by racial inequality. Given ongoing recession and a high share of the informal sector, it is uncertain whether further progress towards gender wage equality in Brazil will emerge spontaneously from the private sector or whether specific policy is needed [Morello, Anjolim, 2021].

With regard to education, the current literacy rate (defined as the percentage of population aged 15 years and over able to read and write) among women is similar to men's rate. In 2010, the literacy rate was estimated at 90.7 % of women compared to 90.1 % of men. Though the share of female students in secondary and tertiary education is high, the trends differ a little. While the share of female students in Brazil's secondary education was gradually falling from 51.3 % in 1973 to 50.2 % in 20153, the share of women in tertiary education had been increasing since 2000 ending at 57.1 % in 20154, which means women make up the majority in colleges and universities. Nonetheless, it should be taken into account that this progress in education for women began several decades ago. The racial and geographic inequalities in education persist despite general improvement. Information system for women's health and equity is also an area begging for drastic improvement measures against a backdrop of a largely unregulated health care

1 World Economic Forum (March, 2021). Global gender gap report. https://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_ GGGR_2021.pdf.

2 A snapshot of gender in Brazil today: Institutions, outcomes, and a closer look at racial and geographic differences. August, 2016. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/25976/112319-WP-GenderDiagnosticfinal-PUBLIC-ABSTRACT-SENT.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y.

3 Knoema data platform. Female students in secondary education in Brazil. https://knoema.com/atlas/Brazil/ topics/Education/Secondary-Education/Female-students-in-secondary-education.

4 School enrollment, tertiary, female (% gross) - Brazil. https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.TER.ENRR. FE?locations=BR.

market. Education for health literacy and informed choice related to health technology are absent in both public and private sectors in Brazil today, although women's health movements developed rich educational materials in the 1980s and 1990s [Diniz, d'Oliveira, Lansky, 2012].

Another key determinant of women's empowerment is a larger participation of women in the judiciary and the legislative bodies. In 2005, the UN Special Representatives pointed to an extremely low level of representation of women in the judicial system, more specifically, women occupied only 5 % of the highest posts in the judiciary and the prosecutor's office. Moreover, as of 2020, only 14.6 % of the seats in the National Parliament were held by women1. The above data shows that women's participation is too narrow in these bodies to properly make and implement laws for the socioeconomic uplift of Brazilian women.

Russia. The story of women's empowerment in Russia is quite different from the other BRICS countries. In the 18th century, situation of Russian women was much better than that of women in other European countries. Between 1850 and 1917, Russian women reached many milestones in their freedom, legal rights, equality in the society and that era was considered as feminine renaissance in the country's history.

After the Russian Revolution of 1917, the equality of women and men was legally recognised. Vladimir Lenin, the first and founding head of government of Soviet Russia from 1917 to 1924 and of the Soviet Union from 1922 to 1924, believed the potential of women to be an important factor in the national socioeconomic development, which had previously been untapped. The 1936 Constitution of the USSR explicitly guaranteed the equality of women and men: "Women in the USSR are accorded equal rights with men in all spheres of educational, economic, state, cultural, social, and political life".

With the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, women lost most of the state aid that they received. However, in the 1990s, Russian women continued to work in various economic sectors, though their wages were less in contrast to men's.

In the Soviet Union, women were stimulated to participate in research and development and achieve their full potential as scholars and innovators. Later, in 1991 and onwards, Russia followed the same path and encouraged women to enter into science. Consequently, Russia has seen a rise in the number of female scientists who are contributing to the scientific development of the country. According to the findings of Saifullova and co-authors, "the current education system has some gender peculiarities, but does not restrict opportunities, and in some cases expands them. Experimental institutions realizing principles of gender education are a striking confirmation thereto" [Saifullova et al., 2016].

From the 1990s to the present day, women's empowerment movement in Russia has been aimed to achieve equal employment rights, curb domestic violence, and push for more political participation at local and national level. In 1993, the equal rights of women and men were enshrined in Article 19 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation. The Constitution also protects family, motherhood and parentage, and the Labour Code of the Russian Federation stipulates the right women to paid maternity leave and paid parental leave, while parental leave without pay can be extended for three years2.

On the economic front, Russian women are still facing disparity. Dual-income model of families is common in Russia, where man and woman both work for the sustenance of their family. The gender wage gap for employed workers in Russia was computed to be at 30 %, and most of this was found to be attributable to gender differences in the returns to characteristics

1 Proportion of seats held by women in national parliaments (%) - Brazil. https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/ SG.GEN.PARL.ZS?locations=BR.

2 Women's empowerment in Russia. BORGEN Magazine, December, 2017. https://www.borgenmagazine.com/ womens-empowerment-in-russia/.

rather than to differences in the levels of characteristics [Newell, Reilly, 1996]. According to the World Bank, labour force participation rate for Russian women aged 15 years and over was vacillating in the range of 53 to 56 % during 2000-2019, which is around 10-15 % lower than the labour force participation rate of the Russian men1. Work type and wage discrimination remain common in labour markets.

On the social front, the status of women in Russia remains challenging. Mounting financial pressure and diminishing social security force Russian women to manage their employment in spite of all kinds of difficulties. Programmes such as direct monetary support of couples with children, increased paid maternity leave, and a 'maternal capital' programme that gives mothers flexible funding for their children's future are designed to increase fertility [Zakharov, 2008].

Hence, there is a long way to go to achieve women's empowerment in Russia. Even though, in a variety of areas such as literature, science, aerospace, arts and sport, Russian women have remarkable achievements and have gained global respect. The future of women's empowerment in Russia is linked with achieving harmony in both social and family status.

India. Women contribute significantly to India's economic growth, however with some reservations. Despite the fact that most of Indian women are managing double responsibilities on the work front, as producers of goods and services, and at home, as a homemaker, approximately 17-18 % of the total GDP is attributed to their efforts. In terms of female labour force participation, India ranks 120th among 131 countries, and, what is worse, gender-based violence is soaring at a worryingly high rate. Therefore, it is quite difficult to foster an inclusive and sustainable way of India's socioeconomic development when half of the population is not fully participating in the economy. As per the World Bank data, contribution of women in India's GDP keeps on being the lowest in the world, with only 20.79 % of the county's labour force being women2. However, even if this percentage were to reach up to 50 %, India's growth would rise from 1.5 % to 9 % a year3. The reason behind is that since majority of women are employed in farming and dairy sector, their contribution to economic development has been overlooked. Furthermore, India's rapid urbanisation does not substantially encourage more women to join the mainstream labour force. Sengupta and Puri argue that "for women, personal characteristic like age was a highly significant determinant of wage whereas in case of men more industry specific determinants were significant" [Sengupta, Puri, 2021]. In addition, Dey, Ramanathan, and Dutta found that "women in rural areas experience difficulties in accessing health services and low literacy levels, low awareness of services and low economic status, which further contribute to reduced access". Indian socioeconomic environment has been improving in rapid manner, but not always equitably or inclusively. India's development model is more like work in progress, and deep-rooted socioeconomic challenges are still the major ones to the women's empowerment. The world experience demonstrates that educating and empowering women takes time, but has proven to be obviously the catalyst for rapid socioeconomic growth and improved human development.

China. For the last four decades, China has demonstrated a remarkable progress in every sphere and become second largest economy of the globe. During this period, China has gone through many structural and functional changes in economic, social, education sector, etc. Consequently, between 1981 and 2004, nation-wide poverty dropped from 65.2 to 10.4 %4. At the

1 Labor force participation rate, female (% of female population ages 15-64) (modeled ILO estimate) - Russian Federation. https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.TLF.ACTI.FE.ZS?locations=RU.

2 Labor force participation rate, female (% of female population ages 15+) (modeled ILO estimate) - India. https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.TLF.CACT.FE.ZS?locations=IN.

3 CAPRI GLOBAL Capital Ltd. (August, 2020). The role of women in the Indian economy & why we need to fund them. https://capriglobal.in/the-role-of-women-in-the-indian-economy-why-we-need-to-fund-them/.

4 UN Women. China.https://sgp.undp.org/images/02%20CHINA%20factsheet.pdf.

same time, China was striving to improve educational infrastructure, health sector, accessibility of water and sanitation in rural communities. On the front of women's economic empowerment and gender equality, China has also undertaken many reforms to promote more women and girls to pursue their higher education, provide them with more mainstream work opportunities with better wages, and encourage women entrepreneurship. Similarly, for social empowerment of women, China has adopted a law establishing equal rights for men and women1.

In order to understand women's social issues, gender equality, and strengthen their social condition, China has been working on to enhanced legal framework aiming at the "overall development of women" as an objective. To achieve that, government inducted a national vision programme "Chinese Women's Development (2011-2020)" seeking to minimise the gender gap and maximise equal opportunities for Chinese women in all occupations. Hence, the All-China Women's Federation (ACWF) has taken the responsibility for the proper adoption of gender polices and maximum execution of gender equality action plan in the near future, while factoring in socioeconomic inequalities, environmental degradation, and the spread of epidemics / pandemics. Significant improvement in the health status of Chinese women since the 1950s is widely acknowledged as a major achievement for a developing country with the largest population in the world, but the differences in women's health by region and urban / rural areas are considerable [Yu, Sarri, 1997].

In line with above, China has demonstrated a strong conviction that women's socioeconomic conditions are to be uplifted, nonetheless, the economic inequality between rural and urban China is one of the highest in the world. The research of Iwasaki and Ma confirms that "the wage gap between men and women is more severe in rural regions and the private sector than those in urban regions and the public sector" [Iwasaki, Ma, 2020]. The Chinese Government is vigorously encouraging better employment opportunities and creating suitable environment for entrepreneurship for women, with a goal to ensure the economic equality for women. Government departments, which are responsible for promotion and implementation of the Employment Promotion Act, are dynamically creating and enhancing employment prospects and business opportunities for all groups, including women. In order to develop better economic environment for women, government has initiated "Five Networks Programme" targeting rural women. The programme covers education and training, technology demonstrations, information service, cooperative businesses, poverty alleviation and relief, and assistance2.

On the front of educational empowerment of women, China has also progressed substantially. Gender inequality in education still exists, but it has been narrowing over time [Zeng et al., 2013]. In order to support the interest in education and gaining various skills, China's Ministry of Education is carrying out vocational training programmes for rural women, such as literacy courses to improve women's general education and knowledge; practical training in agricultural technologies and agriculture business process activities; practical training in information technology and the Internet applications to help them start their online business.

South Africa. It is thought that multiple ethnic groups in South Africa have long-standing beliefs concerning gender roles, and most of which are based on the premise that women are less important, or less deserving of power, than men. Some view African traditional social organisations as male-centric and male-dominated. The 20th century economic and political developments encountered South African women with both new obstacles and new opportunities to wield influence.

1 UN Women. China.https://sgp.undp.org/images/02%20CHINA%20factsheet.pdf.

2 Progress made by the Chinese government in implementation of the "Beijing Declaration" and Program of Action" as well as the "Outcome Document" of the United Nations General Assembly at its Twenty-Third Special S ession. https://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/b eijing15/resp onses/escap/China_(English).pdf.

Feminism in South Africa concerns the organised efforts to improve the girls and women's rights. These efforts are largely linked to issues of feminism and gender equality on one hand, and racial equality and political freedoms of African and non-white South African ethnic groups on the other. Earlier feminist movements were concerned with the suffrage of white women to allow them to vote in elections beginning from the 1930s, and heightened activity in the 1950s to demand equal pay of men and women1.

The 1980s were a major turning point in the advancement of South African women, and in 1994, following the end of the apartheid regime, the status of women was further bolstered by changes to the country's constitution [Hassim, 2006]. Since that year, South African government as well as international organisations invested many efforts to empower women in South Africa. In line with the findings of Shober, "the gap in gender equity is profoundly evident in academia, particularly in the area of positional and financial remuneration for women, and, although a global phenomenon, it is particularly acute in South Africa" [Shober, 2014]. However, required empowerment of South African women progresses at very small steps and greater gender parity is much needed in all occupations. There are still many serious issues, which should be addressed by the government to uplift the economic status of South African women.

On the economic front, the government is facing challenges concerning broader women's participation in the formal economy while providing them with better education and technical skills to build modern economy in South Africa. Economic transformation and greater women's participation have been amongst the government's main goals since 1994. According to ILO estimates, paid workers accounted for 29 % of all people in employment in Africa in 2017 (22.5 % in sub-Saharan Africa), as against 26 % in 2006 (20 % in sub-Saharan Africa). This share is little over half what is observed worldwide: 52 % on average in 2017 (87 % in high-income countries)2. Moreover, there is a huge disparity in poverty levels existing based on population groups and gender of individual. In general, black African women who live in rural areas and those with no education are the main victims in the ongoing struggle against poverty. In 2017, although women constituted 51 % of the total population of South Africa, their participation was only 44.3 % of the total employed workforce, which were often concentrated at lower levels of organisations3. Even in 2021, gender-based discrimination and segregation remain prevalent in the labour market. Additionally, less effective labour reform policies, their slow implementation, and weak regulation of those markets, confine women to jobs that are low paid, of poor quality, with miserable working conditions, and restricted access to social protection.

On the front of social equality and justice, one of the main challenges for South African women, is tackling huge inequality in accessing the basic social services across the different demographic clusters and social levels. Although the government has been trying to promote women's rights by introducing and implementing social reform policies and procedures as well as striving to alleviate the problems connected with basic amenities such as water, sanitation, electricity, affordable transportation, housing and food security, the majority of women, especially from rural areas, encounter great difficulties with access to these social facilities. Even though the government is working positively to improve the national health care infrastructure and services with a view to address issues of women's health and well-being, the majority of women still are not able to receive health care of satisfactory level under the national health

1 South African history online. The Women's struggle timeline 1905-2006. https://www.sahistory.org.za/article/ womens-struggle-timeline-1905-2006.

2 ILO (2019). Wages in Africa: Recent trends in average wages, gender pay gaps and wage disparities. https:// www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---africa/---ro-abidjan/---sro-cairo/documents/publication/wcms_728363.pdf.

3 South Africa's report on the progress made on the implementation of the Beijing platform for action 2014-2019. https://archive.uneca.org/sites/default/files/uploaded-documents/Beijing25/south_africa-beijing25_report.pdf.

infrastructure and services. African women and teenage girls are especially vulnerable to various communicable and non-communicable diseases. Hence, the government has to take heed of the accessibility and efficiency of the national health system to reach out to these critical groups.

South Africa has become a middle-income economy with a strong emerging market. Since the birth of new democracy in 1994, the country's economy has been growing with an average of 4.5 % annually, and individual freedom and social liberty has also enhanced significantly. In today's South Africa, usually girls and boys have better chance to develop and prosper. However, the prospects of bright future for each and every child of this country, are still out of reach. The country's economic growth and political conviction are not enough to curb numerous types of deep-rooted political, social, and economic issues. Good quality and equally accessible education to every boy and girl remains a distant reality for the South African government. As Egbo notes, "despite this recognition and massive educational expansions in the region over the last several decades, women's equal access to education is at best, ideational" [Egbo, 2005]

However, on the bright side, in 2003 the South African Ministry of Education and UNICEF launched an ambitious programme "Girls' Education Movement" (GEM) to educate girls and women in a productive and safe environment as well as reduce the gender gap1. GEM aims to provide equal access to education for every girl, improve the quality of education in rural and underprivileged schools, introduce gender responsive study material and school curriculum, enhance safety and security for female students, promote positive and productive co-habitation between boys and girls, curb gender-based violence, abolish harmful cultural practices, etc. This initiative has already generated some effects in the form of higher number of girls and women coming for education. According to World Bank data, from 2012 to 2015, more than 58 % females were studying in tertiary education2. Overall, there is a long way to go, and South Africa will have to cross the mountain of social, educational, political, economic issues to alleviate the female population's plight and provide them with the long due equality and justice in every walk of their life.

Data and methods

Within the study, we strive to understand and assess key aspects of the standing of the women in the BRICS countries from 2000 onwards as per the different parameters of UN Gender Inequality Index. Moreover, we also attempt to analyse the role of higher education in the labour participation of women and the translation of women capital into the workforce for the socioeconomic development of the BRICS countries.

The study is based on secondary data. The required data was collected from worldbank.org and knoema.com websites. The relevant data was selected to assess the situation of women according to the various parameters of GII and their participation in the workforce from 2000 onwards. Since the data and the time period of many determinants of GII do not coincide, econometric analysis would not provide the correct results. Hence, to analyse and interpret the collected data, simple line diagrams were used.

Research results

Figures 1-2 describe the situation with women's educational empowerment in the BRICS countries during 2000-2015. From both figures, we can see that India has performed better yet not exceptionally outstanding, with only around 5 % improvement in the percentage of female students in secondary education. However, regarding the situation with women's tertiary education, the data in Figure 2 indicate a significant growth from 37.77 to 47.19 % during the period. For the

1 UNICEF. Girls' education movement. South Africa. https://www.yumpu.com/en/document/read/27571540/ girls-education-movement-south-africa.

2 Ibid.

rest of countries, Figures 1-2 do not depict any substantial improvements in the share of female students in secondary and tertiary education during the 15 years, except for China. This country, along with India, also performed well regarding the situation with women's tertiary education. In particular, as per Figure 2, China climbed from 43.84 % in 2003 to 51.47 % by the end of 2015.

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Fig. 2. Share of female students in tertiary education, 2000-2015 Рис. 2. Доля студенток в высших учебных заведениях, 2000-2015

Figure 3 presents the changes in the labour force participation rate of women, which is one of the most important determinants of GII. Since labour participation of females reflects the economic empowerment of women, it is highly dependent on the increment of educational empowerment. Figure 3 plays a crucial role in this study. Focusing on economic development, the classical modernisation perspective considers increases in democracy and human choice as its direct outcomes [Bell, 1999]. It asserts that improvement in people's democracy and human choice is a direct result of economic development. Higher participation of women in the mainstream labour force would translate into a variety of job opportunities, better career progression, more changes of decision-making power, and greater financial freedom. Figure 3 suggests that India and China have been performing poorly in terms of labour participation of females. In terms of population, India stands the second in the world as well as in the BRICS nations, yet the performance of India was the worst with only 30.41 % in 2000. Moreover, from 2000 to 2019, this performance deteriorated further and went down to 20.79 % by the end of 2019, which means despite the fact that more and more Indian women are going for secondary and tertiary education, their skills are not translated into the jobs. The government's labour reform policies

1 Note: all figures are own compilation based on the World Bank data. Corresponding tables for the figures are presented in the Appendix.

targeting economic empowerment have proven to be utterly ineffective to halt this trend. The situation of China is similar with a striking deterioration of females' participation in labour market from 71.13 % in 2000 to 60.57 % by the end of 2019, though the rate itself is the highest among the BRICS countries. On the contrary, as per Figure 3, Brazil and South Africa demonstrate a growth in the females' participation in the labour market. As far as Russia is concerned, there is no substantial increase or decrease in the women's participation in the labour market, the rate amounted to 54.56 % in 2000 and to 54.58 % in 2019.

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Fig. 3. Labour force participation rate for females aged 15 and over, 2000-2019 (modelled ILO estimate) Рис. 3. Доля женщин в возрасте 15 лет и старше в рабочей силе (по оценке МОТ), 2000-2019

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Fig. 4. Maternal mortality ratio, 2000-2017 (modeled estimate, per 100,000 live births) Рис. 4. Динамика материнской смертности (оценка на 100 000 живорождений), 2000-2017

Motherhood is a very important milestone in a woman's life and has a tremendous impact on it. Figures 4-5 show the females' situation of being a mother in the BRICS countries. As for the maternal mortality, in all BRICS member countries it fell considerably. Over the 17 years, especially India and South Africa have worked a lot on their health services toward reducing the death rate of women while giving childbirth.

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Fig. 6. Proportion of seats held by women in national parliaments, 2000-2020 Рис. 6. Доля мест в национальных парламентах, занимаемых женщинами, 2000-2020

Figure 6 shows the proportion of seats held by women in national parliaments. This indicator is also very significant in the context of the topic explored, because a higher proportion of women in national parliaments can increase opportunities of passing legislations and policies in the favour of women's empowerment, thus create greater opportunities for them and enhance their participation in the socioeconomic development of nation. The data suggests that in four out of the five countries the share of women in the national parliaments is less than 25 %, which signifies the weak political empowerment of women in these countries. However, only South Africa seems to be promoting its women to take part in the legislative assembly, which is reflected in the significant increment from 29.83 to 46.75 % of seats held by women in South African national parliaments for the past two decades.

The GII measures three dimensions, including health, empowerment and labour market through such parameters as maternal mortality ratio, adolescent birth rate, share of seats in parliament, population with at least some secondary education (% aged 25 and over), and labour

force participation rate. According to the GII 2019, the BRICS countries are far behind in terms of delivering real justice to women's empowerment1. Only China and Russia seem to be showing efforts to reduce gender gap by securing 39th and 50th ranks respectively. On the other hand, Brazil (ranks 95th) and South Africa (ranks 93rd) have to put more effort to reduce gender inequality. Though India is the seventh fastest growing economy in the world and second most sound economy in the BRICS, gender inequality situation is worrisome. As per data, India is placed 123rd in the GII, which is worse than many poor countries.

Discussion

The problem is not limited to bridging the gap in opportunities for women and men. Even if that gap is bridged, and women enter the same level-playing field to show their skill and knowledge, achieving the resulting impact on economic development through the women's empowerment is a different ballgame altogether. Evidently, despite having the same calibre as men, women are pulled back due to various socio-cultural hindrances and to shatter that glass ceiling, they need additional encouragement from the families and societies they live in. Some of those obstacles include economic backwardness, implementation gaps, lack of political will, unpaid work in household and subsistence agriculture, lack of access to technology, poor access to credit and marketing networks, and restrictions on mobility due to various religious, cultural and security reasons. Upon removal of these constraints, the global and each country's economy will get prosperous due to the changed role of women in different fields of the economy.

In line with our findings, a number of recommendations can be formulated.

Work-life integration for better productivity. Both working mothers and employees can benefit from greater workplace flexibility by pushing the boundaries of the work culture. Moving toward an environment of high team trust and empowerment allows for more flexibility concerning work hours and locations. Closing the gender gap by not only focusing on women, but also involving men to share the burden of parenthood will enable employers to build a better pipeline of female talent.

Increase and enable access to financing and other resources. Public and private sectors' efforts and investments are needed to continue to open markets to women entrepreneurs. For example, Goldman Sachs launched its 10,000 Women Initiative in 2008 to provide training and support networks in developing countries. Intel launched the She Will Connect, a programme that aims to help 5 million women in Africa access the Internet. Governments must allocate certain budget to address the needs of working women, such as funding day care centres that allow women to send their young children near their workplace. This support incentivizes women professionals and staff to work full-time while raising a family. In India, Meerut Seva Samaj provides a concrete example of how an Indian women, especially in rural areas, can become a successful entrepreneur with the help of technology, training and other resources [Bertaux, Crable, 2007]. Institutionalizing best practices to enable both genders to recognise equal responsibilities in a partnership will help alleviate the dual roles that women are usually expected to play in the society.

Embrace technology rather than fear it. Organisations are now challenged to put individuals at the core of their businesses. For instance, a digital workforce should be able to be better connected to collaborate locally and globally. Soft skills such as creativity and empathy are essential in the digital age - from the coders who build AI software to the cybersecurity experts who protect the system. Understanding consumer behaviour, preferences and behavioural trends point toward being more human-centered. Job displacements may be skewed negatively

1 UN Gender Inequality Index. https://hdr.undp.org/en/content/gender-inequality-index-gii.

against the female workforce, but there are opportunities for women to lead the change by embracing the human side of work.

Create a pipeline for women leaders. The female leadership barrier needs to be addressed by focusing on presenting opportunities rather than placing women in key positions as a band-aid solution. A study of 222 international corporate companies shows men and women representation in jobs are approximately equal at entry level1. The gender balance changes as it gets higher up the organisation ladder. While implementing programmes and establishing a talent pipeline that identifies, nurtures, and promotes female talent, leaders need to better understand the barriers to women's career development and take necessary steps to break them down. Boards and their nominating committees must consciously broaden their search criteria and present a more diverse pool of candidates across genders. The nominating committees and management teams should be challenged to seek board or leadership candidates that are not similar to the current profile of leaders.

Education as the way forward. Education will continue to play pivotal role in advancing gender equality in the workforce. The key to success lies in motivating the private sector and the government as employers to provide training to women in the workforce. Incentives to encourage training are typically across the board, though not many are targeted at the needs of women in the life cycle in the labour force. Governments must improve their participation to advocate training programs that are specific to women who want to move from the unskilled to skilled level. Many of these women lack basic vocational skillsets that allow them to participate actively in the labour market. Working with companies, associations or charities to subsidise heavily such training and develop certification programmes must be strongly encouraged. For higher-educated women, forms of tax relief as deductions and rebates can be used to stimulate mothers to remain in the workforce.

Conclusion

Traditionally, men have been breadwinners, while the women's role has been limited to family and household. In the last few decades however, the lines are getting blurred between work and family. The imperative to accelerate gender parity, coupled with the willingness to lead the change, is transforming the roles women take in the society and consolidating the foundation of women's empowerment. This cultural and demographic shift can be attributed to the focus on an individual's competencies rather than their gender. Women are getting more opportunities to play to their strengths and as a result, they are winning more than ever by making decisions based on their interests and competencies. With this in view, empowering women socially, economically, politically and legally is going to be a phenomenal and continuous task. Women have a unique position in the economy, and by gathering economic strength they gain visibility and voice. Women's direct participation in decision-making and income generation activities can contribute significantly to women's empowerment. Entrepreneurship and being an income-earning family member can help women to achieve economic independence, which may help them elevate their social status.

1 McKinsey & Company. Women in the workplace 2021. https://www.mckinsey.com/featured-insights/diversity-and-inclusion/women-in-the-workplace .

Appendix. Indicators of the UN Gender Inequality Index for the BRICS countries

Приложение. Показатели Индекса гендерного неравенства ООН для стран БРИКС

Table 1. Share of female students in secondary education, 2000-2015 Таблица 1. Доля учениц в учреждениях среднего образования, 2000-2015

Year Brazil Russian Federation India China South Africa

2000 n.a. n.a. 39.58 n.a. 52.41

2001 n.a. n.a. 39.79 46.76 52.19

2002 51.56 n.a. 40.65 n.a. 51.69

2003 51.75 48.92 42.56 46.85 51.48

2004 51.54 48.79 42.58 n.a. 51.53

2005 51.62 48.65 43.02 n.a. 51.36

2006 n.a. 48.49 43.30 47.67 51.25

2007 51.74 48.38 43.97 47.70 51.00

2008 51.71 48.20 44.58 47.83 50.83

2009 51.62 48.34 45.49 47.97 51.03

2010 51.50 n.a. 45.62 47.10 51.14

2011 51.37 48.29 45.98 47.11 51.03

2012 51.15 48.29 46.15 47.19 51.05

2013 50.73 48.36 47.57 47.94 51.02

2014 50.51 48.24 47.65 47.35 51.91

2015 50.25 48.24 47.60 47.34 n.a.

Note: n.a. means not available

Table 2. Share of female students in tertiary education, 2000-2015

Таблица 2. Доля студенток в высших учебных заведениях, 2000-2015

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Year Brazil Russian Federation India China South Africa

2000 56.17 n.a. 37.77 n.a. n.a.

2001 56.10 55.84 38.66 n.a. n.a.

2002 56.47 56.74 39.10 n.a. n.a.

2003 56.44 55.85 38.45 43.84 n.a.

2004 56.34 57.02 38.20 45.51 n.a.

2005 55.86 57.06 39.41 45.99 n.a.

2006 n.a. 56.94 39.91 47.06 n.a.

2007 55.72 56.83 39.13 47.89 n.a.

2008 55.77 56.82 n.a. 48.80 n.a.

2009 56.96 56.63 39.31 49.24 n.a.

2010 56.88 n.a. 40.00 49.70 n.a.

2011 56.80 56.25 41.76 50.16 n.a.

2012 57.10 54.97 n.a. 50.38 58.02

2013 57.15 54.19 45.94 50.72 58.14

2014 57.30 53.38 47.08 51.11 58.11

2015 57.06 53.43 47.19 51.47 n.a.

Table 3. Labour force participation rate for females aged 15 and over, 2000-2019 (modelled ILO estimate)

Таблица 3. Доля женщин в возрасте 15 лет и старше в рабочей силе (по оценке МОТ), 2000-2019

Year Brazil Russian Federation India China South Africa

2000 50.19 54.56 30.41 71.13 44.94

2001 51.22 53.42 30.67 70.33 45.26

2002 52.58 54.43 30.94 69.45 45.62

2003 52.90 54.19 31.22 68.54 46.02

2004 53.95 54.67 31.50 67.67 46.43

2005 55.08 55.15 31.79 66.89 46.83

2006 54.79 55.52 30.52 66.20 47.15

2007 54.54 56.13 29.30 65.63 47.46

2008 54.44 56.06 28.11 65.12 47.78

2009 54.91 56.20 26.97 64.59 46.30

2010 53.52 55.88 25.85 63.98 44.89

2011 52.12 56.13 24.41 63.73 45.46

2012 53.02 56.07 23.04 63.47 45.83

2013 52.93 55.75 22.60 63.20 46.91

2014 53.81 55.67 22.18 62.90 47.24

2015 53.34 55.49 21.79 62.55 48.57

2016 53.29 55.61 21.41 62.14 48.65

2017 54.14 55.19 21.05 61.66 49.57

2018 54.36 55.24 20.71 61.12 49.51

2019 55.09 54.58 20.79 60.57 49.59

Table 4. Maternal mortality ratio, 2000-2017 (modeled estimate, per 100,000 live births)

Таблица 4. Динамика материнской смертности (оценка на 100 000 живорождений), 2000-2017

Year Brazil Russian Federation India China South Africa

2000 69 56 370 59 160

2001 68 53 354 55 168

2002 69 51 336 51 177

2003 70 49 319 48 186

2004 71 45 303 46 195

2005 71 42 286 44 201

2006 72 36 270 42 201

2007 71 32 255 40 199

2008 70 30 240 40 191

2009 69 27 225 37 179

2010 65 25 210 36 171

2011 61 23 197 34 161

2012 60 22 185 33 143

2013 61 20 175 32 133

2014 62 19 166 31 128

2015 63 18 158 30 125

2016 62 18 150 29 122

2017 60 17 145 29 119

Table 5. Adolescent fertility rate, 2000-2019 (births per 1,000 women aged 15-19) Таблица 5. Динамика рождений на 1 000 женщин в возрасте 15-19 лет, 2000-2019

Year Brazil Russian Federation India China South Africa

2000 82.21 30.588 66.837 9.911 70.284

2001 81.526 29.101 63.498 9.33 68.018

2002 80.842 27.613 60.159 8.749 65.751

2003 78.894 28.019 57.039 8.457 66.052

2004 76.966 28.425 53.919 8.165 66.354

2005 75.028 28.831 50.799 7.674 66.655

2006 73.09 29.237 47.679 7.582 66.957

2007 71.152 29.643 44.599 7.29 67.258

2008 69.732 28.998 41.258 7.307 68.202

2009 68.312 28.354 37.956 7.325 69.145

2010 66.893 27.709 34.655 7.342 70.089

2011 65.473 27.065 31.353 7.36 71.032

2012 64.053 26.42 28.052 7.377 71.976

2013 63.065 25.276 25.077 7.429 71.162

2014 62.076 24.132 22.102 7.48 70.349

2015 61.088 22.987 19.127 7.532 69.535

2016 60.099 21.843 16.152 7.583 68.722

2017 59.111 20.699 13.177 7.635 67.908

2018 57.886 19.62 12.071 7.643 67.849

2019 56.661 18.54 10.965 7.651 67.79

Table 6. Proportion of seats held by women in national parliaments, 2000-2020 Таблица 6. Доля мест в национальных парламентах, занимаемых женщинами, 2000-2020

Year Brazil Russian Federation India China South Africa

2000 5.653 7.71 9.007 21.783 29.825

2001 6.823 7.572 8.84 21.783 29.825

2002 6.238 7.572 8.84 21.783 29.825

2003 8.577 7.572 8.84 20.235 29.825

2004 8.577 9.843 8.257 20.235 32.779

2005 8.577 9.843 8.287 20.268 32.75

2006 8.772 9.843 8.257 20.268 32.75

2007 8.967 14.00 9.057 20.621 33.00

2008 8.967 14.00 9.057 21.326 33.00

2009 8.772 14.00 10.826 21.326 44.50

2010 8.577 14.00 10.826 21.326 44.50

2011 8.577 13.556 11.009 21.323 42.25

2012 8.577 13.556 11.009 23.401 42.25

2013 8.577 13.556 11.009 23.401 42.25

2014 9.942 13.556 11.418 23.401 41.50

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2015 9.942 13.556 11.971 23.623 42.00

2016 9.942 12.667 11.971 23.623 42.00

2017 10.721 15.778 11.808 24.248 41.837

2018 15.01 15.778 11.808 24.889 42.748

2019 15.01 15.778 14.391 24.941 46.348

2020 14.62 15.778 14.365 24.941 46.75

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Information about the authors

Maneesh Kumar Pandey, doctoral student of the Faculty of Technological Management and Innovations, ITM0 University, 9 Lomonosov St., Saint Petersburg, 191002, Russia Phone: +7 (812) 457-18-37, e-mail: [email protected]

Irina G. Sergeeva, Dr. Sc. (Econ.), Professor, Associate Prof. of the Faculty of Technological Management and Innovations, ITM0 University, 9 Lomonosov St., Saint Petersburg, 191002, Russia Phone: +7 (812) 312-68-40, e-mail: [email protected]

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Источники

Al-Dajani H., Marlow S. (2013). Empowerment and entrepreneurship: A theoretical framework. International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behavior & Research, vol. 19, no. 5, pp. 503-524. https://doi. org/10.1108/IJEBR-10-2011-0138.