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A
Media Culture
A hermeneutic analysis of British and American documentary films about school and
university education *
Abstract. The article presents the results of a hermeneutic analysis of British and American documentary films (1954-2017) about school and university education. The research objective was to analyze and characterize the cultural and historical contexts, to define the role and value of the school and university topic in the mirror of the documentary cinema of the English-speaking countries in terms of social studies, culture studies, film studies, anthropology and media education. The author of the article concludes that the analyzed British and American documentary films about school and university education: 1) being the expression of the media texts authors' civic-mindedness, have always sought to raise public awareness of problem areas of the national system of education; 2) traditionally focus on critical re-evaluation of the reforming and current state of education in the English-speaking countries; 3) involve a wide range of relevant topics and plots about school and after-school education based on real events; 4) use a variety of genre modifications to represent reality; 5) realistically reflect both positive (multicultural education; struggle against racism, poverty and mass illiteracy; reforming and improving the quality of education; financial support of talented youth from economically disadvantaged families; national traditions of prestigious private education, etc.) and negative (discrimination against ethnic minorities and youth from low-income families; aggression and bullying in schools, social exclusion and inequalities in education, a low socio-economic status of teachers, etc.) aspects of social, political, cultural and educational life spheres in the UK and USA; 6) emphasize personal, public, social, political and economic importance and value of high-quality and accessible education for every citizen, particularly in the current global context.
Keywords: hermetic analysis, media text, characters, media education, documentary film, UK, USA, school, college, university, students, teachers.
* This research was funded by the grant of the Russian Science Foundation (RSF, project No. 17-1801001) at Rostov State University of Economics. Project theme: "School and university in the mirror of
Soviet, Russian and Western audiovisual media texts". Head of the project is professor A.V. Fedorov.
Introduction
The research studies British and American documentary films about school and university education. The unique character of documentary films shot in the English-speaking countries is connected to their national, historical and sociocultural peculiarities that determined the themes, genres and evolution of the documentary films about education to a great degree in these countries. The authors of the documentary films about school and university follow the expressive critical tradition in the British documentary cinema of the early 19th century established by J. Grierson - the founder of the British documentary school; they focus on the critical re-evaluation of the reforms history and the contemporary state of education in the English-speaking countries, trying to draw the public attention to some problem zones of the national education. According to G.S. Prozhiko, "the British documentary has always been actively integrated not only into the space of artistic reflection of reality but also into the context of social and political circumstances of the social history" [Prozhiko, 2004, p. 9].
Dr. Galina Mikhaleva,
Rostov State University of Economics, 344002, Rostov-on-Don, B. Sadovaya, 69, gmikhaleva@list.ru
J. Grierson was the first to proclaim the famous postulate that a documentary film is "a creative treatment of actuality" which, according to contemporary researchers, is not "contrary to the main principle of screen documentary filmmaking - to depict life events, facts truly... An artistic interpretation of reality tells about the documentary filmmakers' ability to observe and select facts of real life and manifest them on the screen with the help of a certain set of artistic means" [Dvorko, 2014].
Being an expression of the media texts authors' active citizenship, documentary films made in the English-speaking countries draw the viewers' attention to a wide range of relevant topics and plots about school and after-school education, very often based on real events.
In this respect, it is important to note that the American documentary cinema is always an open interactive platform for discussing urgent social issues, including current education-related problems. For this purpose, many films are extensively debated in the press and on television. Besides, media audiences have an excellent opportunity to learn about the production history and content of a documentary film by visiting the internet site of its creators. Such sites enable filmmakers to present their media text, receive funding in the form of donations, and also to get a feedback - their audiences' comments and reviews.
The research of foreign treatment and presentation of school and university education in documentary films produced in the English-speaking countries in different historical periods seems to us highly important for a retrospective analysis of the transformation and the current state of the problem.
Materials and Methods
Our research material comprises 92 documentary films about school and university education produced in various historical periods (1954-2017) in the English-speaking countries (UK, USA). Basic research methods include a comparative hermeneutic analysis of documentary audio-visual media texts relating to the topic (including stereotypes analysis, ideological analysis, identification analysis, narrative analysis of media texts, media text's character analysis, etc.), anthropological, retrospective and gender analyses.
We stick to a common understanding of a documentary film and regard it as a form of cinema art, and its material is real events and people documented on film. Hence, we use the definition coined by A.V. Karaganov, that a documentary film is "a media text based on shooting real, authentic events and facts" [Karaganov, 1977, p. 53].
Our research objective was to analyze and characterize the cultural and historical contexts, to define the role and value of the school and university topic in the mirror of the documentary cinema of the English-speaking countries in terms of social studies, culture studies, film studies, anthropology and media education.
Discussion
Numerous books and research articles have been devoted to the analysis of Russian and foreign documentary films, including English-language documentary cinema [Malkova, 2001; Muratov, 2004; Frunk, 2011; Prozhiko, 2004; Dolmatovskaya, Kopalina, 1991; Julai, 2005; Pronin, 2016; Abdullayeva, 2011; Dvorko, 2014; Swann, 1989; Clotman & Cutler, 1999; KpHcreHceH, 2002; Prince, 2007; Chapman, 2015; Geiger, 2011; Blair, Entin & Nudelman, 2018, et al.].
In particular, the film historians and critics have studied such aspects as the history of screen documentary filmmaking, a specific character of the documentary film genre, the history and distinguishing features of the national documentary film production, interrelation between fictional and non-fictional films, social and aesthetic responsibility of documentary filmmakers, etc.
However, the analysis of documentary films that created school and university media images (both Russian and foreign) has not been sufficiently presented in research literature so far. We managed to find only some rare examples of the hermeneutic analysis of non-fiction films about school and university education [Fedorov, et al., 2017; Muryukina, 2017; Fedorov, et al., 2018]. Obviously, this theme requires further research and scientific analysis.
Results
We divided the historical chronology of the analyzed British and American documentary films about school and university education into two periods:
1) the first period covers the period of the 1950s - 1990s. The few media texts on the topic give a striking social and economic contrasting presentation of state and independent systems of school and university education: crisis in the state system of education (The Best Days, UK, 1977; All American High, USA, 1987); attempts of some teaching enthusiasts to improve the local situation (The Children's Storefront, USA, 1988; I'm a Promise, USA, 1993; Small Wonders, USA, 1995); fight against poverty and mass illiteracy; support for talented high-school leavers from low-income families (A Space to Grow, USA, 1968). And, on the other hand, - an idealized media image of an elite private school or college for students from wealthy aristocratic families (A Very English Education, UK, 1978; Radley College: Public School, UK, 1980; Eton College, UK, 1967; The Gentlemen Factory - Eton, UK, 1980; Queens': A Cambridge College, UK, 1985; Inside Eton, UK, 1995).
2) the present-day period (2000 - our time). The problem zones of the media texts about school and university of this period cover a wide range of urgent topics and plots which reflect the current state of education in the English-speaking countries:
- everyday routine of high-school life, students' and teachers' attitudes to school (Go Public: A Day in the Life of an American School District, USA, 2012; The New Public, USA, 2012; High School, USA (Scotland), 2012; Our School, UK, 2014; Educating UK, UK, 20112017);
- reforms and promotion of quality education in the English-speaking countries (Mitchell 20, USA, 2011; The Cartel, USA, 2009; Teach, USA, 2013; The Revisionaries, USA, 2012); innovations in education and future learning technologies (We are the People We've Been Waiting For, UK, 2009; Future Learning, UK, 2012);
- foreign educational institutions and students' exchange programs (British High School Students' School Swap: Korea Style, UK, 2016);
- various problems of modern higher education (The Ivory Tower, USA, 2014; Brainwashing 101, USA, 2004; Brainwashing 201: The Second Semester, USA, 2004; From the Top Down, USA, 2006; College Conspiracy, USA, 2013, etc.);
- re-education of "difficult" teenagers, integration of students from risk and marginalized groups into standard school environment, their social rehabilitation (Room to Breathe, USA, 2013; Who Cares About Kelsey?, USA, 2012; 180 Days: Inside an American High School, USA, 2013; Doing it for Me, USA, 2013; Excluded: Kicked Out of School, UK, 2015-2016; Last Chance Academy, UK, 2013; Last Chance High, USA, 2014; The Bad Kids, UK, 2016; The Nurture Room: Real Stories, UK, 2017; The Boys of Baraka, USA, 2005);
- integrated and inclusive education; training of students with disabilities and/or special educational needs (Educating Peter, Graduating Peter, USA, 1992-2001; Growing Pains of a Teenage Genius, UK, 2011; Extreme Love: Autism, USA, 2012; The Address, USA, 2014; Best Kept Secret, USA, 2013);
- national traditions of prestigious private education, elite boarding schools and colleges (A Very British School, UK, 2013; Britain's Youngest Boarders, UK, 2010; American Promise, USA, 2013).
British and American documentary films about school and university education produced in the
1950s-1990s
Historical context
Full-length documentary films created in Great Britain and America before 2000 were a logical consequence and a social reaction to the social and economic situation facing these countries during the period.
This period in the UK is traditionally defined as "the era of the Conservative Party" due to its extended political rule in the country. Their "tough" political decisions were not always supported by the majority of the population. Among such unpopular political measures which found reflection in the analyzed media texts were the following: tax increase in 1968 and decreased public spending on health care, education, housing development and other social needs. Such acts affected the social life in the country negatively, including the crisis of the state system of school education. For example, a seemingly optimistic title of a British documentary film - The Best Days (UK, 1977) turns into a sarcastic name since this media text is actually a social drama which makes a rather depressing impression on viewers.
This documentary film about a typical British state school caused a great stir in the society. This provocative film was initiated by a TV company and intended to draw the public attention to the issues of quality school education in the country. The media text gave a picture of an "unvarnished" London school in its true colors. It showed the whole kaleidoscope of the 1970s school everyday life environment: routine practical classes in different school subjects (music, literature, physical training, anatomy, modern languages, career counseling, etc.); teachers belonging to different generations and nationalities, possessing different professional capacity and skills; absolutely unmotivated school students who sometimes behaved rather outrageously in the classroom; senior girl students smoking cigarettes in the washroom during the break; the school headmaster holding formal "instructive debates" with some students; and, finally, at the end of the film we see elderly cleaners complaining about chewing gums stuck to the floor...
The picture looks even more pessimistic against the background of almost idyllic "flawless" British private schools and colleges for boys or girls presented in such BBC films as: A Very English Education (UK, 1979), Radley College: Public School (UK, 1980), Eton College (UK, 1967), The Gentlemen Factory - Eton (UK, 1980), Queens': A Cambridge College (UK, 1985), etc. These films were a carte-de-visite of a private school or college as they actually advertised the described educational institutions.
The reform period and a complete reconstruction of the British system of education lasted nearly 20 years (1960s - 1980s), and only in 1987 The National Curriculum 5-16 was introduced by the government. It was followed by a major act establishing the National Curriculum, testing regime, local management of schools in 1988 - Education Reform Act. Five years later, another Education Act (1993) was introduced that laid down the rules for pupil exclusions, established the School Curriculum and Assessment Authority (SCAA) and defined special educational needs. Also, in 1993, the National Commission on Education (independent of government) published their report - Learning to succeed: a radical look at education today and a strategy for the future.
The American system of high-school and university education was not going through the best of times then either. The education reform and modernization period in the USA, unlike the UK, was caused not only by economic and social, but also by politico-military and ideological reasons.
It is a well-known fact that the USA lagged behind the leading European countries in its economic development as well as in the military and space exploration as compared with the USSR. Hence, USA president D. Eisenhower declared publicly that the national security interests called for the federal government to take urgent measures to improve the quality of the USA system of education. That led to further rejection of the elite system of higher education
and its relative democratization, critical analysis of the current educational situation in schools and higher education reforms: "The reform measures of the 1960s-1970s were a natural consequence and resulted from a number of conditions linked to high demands of the scientific and technical progress as well as the new level of socio-economic development of the American society" [Zenina, 1999, p. 10].
Hence emerged a very strong sense of crisis in the national system of state school education which was reflected in the mirror of documentary media texts of that period including the state fight against poverty and support for promising high-school leavers from disadvantaged families intending to continue their education (A Space to Grow, USA, 1968; All American High, USA, 1987). Some enthusiasts endeavored to improve the educational situation locally, in their schools (The Children's Storefront, USA, 1988; I'm a Promise, USA, 1993; Small Wonders, USA, 1995).
After the Higher Education Act (1965) was implemented in the USA, there appeared special government-supported programmes providing financial or credit support for gifted university applicants from low-income family backgrounds, rural districts or slums. One of such programmes (Upward Bound) was advertised in a short documentary movie entitled A Space to Grow (USA, 1968). The authors of the media text told their target audience about the programme opportunities and the first experience of its implementation in several Chicago universities. The film is an example of the traditional propaganda cinema: a cheerful and optimistic announcer encourages young and intelligent youth from disadvantaged or/and socially excluded families to get quality higher education and serve the society. The main characters of the media text came from the poorest layers of the American society for whom the government had paved the way for getting higher education and realizing the proverbial American dream which was absolutely unattainable for them before as well as for many other American citizens belonging to the mentioned category. Some years later, the programme was found ineffective and its funding was significantly reduced. As it turned out, it was not enough to motivate talented youth to finish high-schools and enter universities to strengthen higher education and research. The problem was much more serious than supposed - it was necessary to improve the educational situation in schools first so that they could raise such gifted children.
Sociocultural, ideological, political contexts
The ideological context of the analyzed British media texts about school and university education is especially evident in emphatically impressive media images of privileged independent schools and colleges for students from aristocratic families - future representatives of high society, political and socio-economic elite of the country (A Very English Education, UK, 1978; Radley College: Public School, UK, 1980; Eton College, UK, 1967; The Gentlemen Factory - Eton, UK, 1980; Queens': A Cambridge College, UK, 1985; Inside Eton, UK, 1995). It is no coincidence that the viewers see Prince Charles and Lady Diana Spenser in the exposition of the media text- Inside Eton (UK, 1995) with their sons; they brought their elder son William to study at Eton.
The authors of such media texts proudly demonstrate the learning environment in the presented private schools and/or colleges and try to persuade the target audience that they form the world outlook of future gentlemen - potential representatives of the British political and economic power. The curriculum in such schools provides a wide range of academic disciplines including military, religious and secular education. It aims at teaching the graduates to be independent, self-disciplined, punctual, self-confident, ambitious and hard-working.
The ideological context of the American media texts about school and university education has both political and social backgrounds. The keynote of these media texts may be defined as follows: schools in democratic America provide equal opportunities for all citizens to get education regardless of their social status, origin, racial or ethnic identity, and are considered to
be a means of establishing social equality and stabilization in the multicultural American society (All American High, USA, 1987; Small Wonders, USA, 1995).
On the other hand, schools and universities are supposed to guarantee quality education, future scientific and technical progress, economic growth, and, finally, politico-military benefit of the nation. Hence, there comes a conclusion that the state system of education is a national security instrument that depends on promoting mass literacy and offering grant schemes and scholarships for promising high school leavers (A Space to Grow, USA, 1968; All American High, USA, 1987).
It is interesting how a school instructor in the film All American High (USA, 1987) is discussing some issues of using nuclear weapons and global nuclear threat with her students. In the course of the talk, she suddenly declares that for insane M. Gaddafi it does not matter what might happen to common Americans. It proves that M. Gaddafi had a negative reputation in the USA at that time, supposedly, due to a series of terrorist acts in 1985 in the airports of Rome and Vienna as well as in 1986 when two American servicemen died during the explosion at a disco in Berlin. The American reaction was immediate: R. Reagan ordered an air raid on Libya...
The world outlook of the characters of the media texts
The views and beliefs of the characters of the media texts about school and university education in many respects reflect the dominant social ideology of that time and the national peculiarities of the countries. For instance, British private school and university students value education and good manners; develop their talents (artistic, musical, sporting, etc.); learn to be leaders by taking part in different competitions; they do social work, assist elderly and disabled people.
As for American students, they appreciate friendship, freedom, independence, collaboration; join different associations; feel proud of their school, their individual educational and extracurricular achievements, and their country. For example, Rikki - a foreign exchange student from Finland (All American High, USA, 1987), notices that school high-school students belong either to Republicans or to Democrats like their parents. On the other hand, students themselves divide into punks, metalheads and geeks. Besides, American high-school students value sociability and "popularity" among peers.
Structure and narrative techniques used in the media texts
The structure, plot, representativity, ethics, genre modification peculiarities, iconography, characters can be summarized as follows:
Time and place of action in the media texts: UK and USA schools and universities of the 1960s-1990s. The scene is usually laid in the city where the real school or university is located. Sometimes the action is transferred to the students' homes and dwelling places.
Household items and furnishing in the media texts: the furniture of the state educational institutions is strictly functional and presents a typical school environment, including the campus. The students' living conditions depend on their socio-economic status and the prosperity of their families. The independent educational institutions are situated in picturesque places, ancient buildings and/or modern buildings equipped with convenient classrooms, libraries, sports facilities, halls of residence, laundries, etc. The private students' living conditions are also very comfortable due to their family financial well-being and/or aristocratic status.
Genre modifications: drama, reportage, film diary, newsreel, etc.
Techniques of representing reality: the characters look quite realistic, very often, they are real teachers, students, their parents and relatives.
Stereotyped techniques of representing reality: an idealized, "retouched" media image of private British educational institutions; a positive attitude to the characters of the film, readiness to understand their viewpoint and problems.
Types of characters
Age-groups: junior and senior school students; university students; grown-ups can be of different age; school and university teachers are of different age, gender, nationality.
Level of education: school and university students' level of education corresponds to their grade or course of study; teachers have different professional skills; the educational level of other characters can be any.
Social status, profession: state school students and their parents are from different social layers, mainly, - the middle class; British private school and university students come from well-to-do aristocratic families, they are the social elite; American students can come from low-income families or from upper middle-class families.
Family status: adults (teachers, parents, administration, etc.) can be either married or single; students from private school and colleges usually have married parents and instructors.
Appearance, clothes, constitution, traits of character, speech: state school students are dressed according to their age, status and the realities of that time. Very often, they wear convenient casual clothes. Jeans are the most popular type of clothes. Senior students seem to be rather free-wheeling, some of them use slang.
The frames from the film All American High (USA, 1987) show the appearance, clothes, constitution of high-school students of that time.
Fig. 1. Frames from the film All American High (USA, 1987)
Senior students of private school and colleges strictly follow the dress code of the educational institution. As a rule, - it is a pompous smart-looking style of the English gentleman.
Fig. 2. Frame from the film Inside Eton (UK, 1995)
Speaking of the teachers' media images, they also wear long gowns in classrooms and on ceremonies.
Fig. 3. Frame from the film Radley College: Public School (UK, 1980)
Plot schemes of the media texts about school and university:
- plot scheme 1: a teacher/principle or a group of enthusiastic school/college teachers support their students, despite different obstacles and difficulties (imperfect system of education, material or financial problems, etc.); they devote their life to upbringing children, mainly from broken homes, disadvantaged low-income and /or incomplete families; the teachers develop their students' personal qualities and talents, motivate them to continue their education. Finally, they succeed in teaching or fail (A Space to Grow, USA, 1968; I'm a Promise, USA, 1993; Small Wonders, USA, 1995).
- plot scheme 2: students attend school but do not get quality education for differing reasons (imperfect system of education, teachers' incompetence, ineffective teaching methods, lack of motivation, discipline violation, disrespect of teachers, etc.). In the end, they get disappointed in studies (The Best Days, UK, 1977) or, on the contrary, participate mainly in extra-curricular activities, have fun and enjoy themselves communicating: they are keen on everything - sports, modern music, parties, dates, but not on studying (All American High, USA, 1987). As a result, they do not know anything about the world around and their future is absolutely indefinite.
- plot scheme 3: students from prosperous aristocratic British families enter a prestigious private school or college; they learn about the traditions and structure, strict rules of the educational institution; they study hard, take serious intellectual and physical tests and examinations; become responsible and self-disciplined. As a result, most students pass the tests successfully, find a worthy place in life, and build a successful career after graduation. In some rare cases, students are unable to study in such a demanding educational institution and quit school (Eton College, UK, 1967; Radley College: Public School, UK, 1980; The Gentlemen Factory - Eton, UK, 1980; Queens': A Cambridge College, UK, 1985).
The plot analysis of the documentary English-language films about school and university education produced in the 1950s-1990s brings to the front the following list of major issues reflected in the analyzed audio-visual media texts: urgent need for quality education in school and university, for reforms in the national system of education, for its democratization, for mass literacy promotion; social inequality in education and detachment of schools form real life. British and American documentary films about school and university education produced in the
2000s
Historical context
The modern stage of the British education system is characterized by increased attention from the government and the public to reforming and modernization of the national education system.
At the beginning of the 21st century - in the late 1990s, the British government headed by Prime-Minister J. Major inherited from M. Thatcher the "heavy legacy" of massive decline and a
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vast increase in inequality and social polarization in education. Unfortunately, numerous attempts of the new government to improve the situation in the national education failed: a return to "traditional values" in the "back to basics" campaign was not supported by the public either.
Teachers and parents believed that the Labour government led by T. Blair would open a new "golden age" in the British education. But life did not allow these expectations to come true either: the new education policy brought tougher regulation and inspection of schools, dividing school into successful (the so-called "beacon schools") and unsuccessful or "failing" schools. Forceful extension of the number of religious schools, a wide privatization of educational services only worsened the current problems in education.
The succeeding generation of British reformers of the 21st century continues to seek new ways of optimizing the educational sector and mass literacy promotion, prioritizing the transition of the cultural experience from generation to generation, effective socialization and career development of the younger generation. Notwithstanding, there remains a wide range of challenges, including: drastic budget cuts in education, fewer places in universities and increased tuition fees...
The historically developed British critical tradition in the documentary cinema consists in the attempt to draw the public attention to crucial social issues, including the problem of assessable and quality mass education. That is why contemporary documentary films about school and university education bear such a dramatic intonation: they tell about present-day challenges and "hot buttons" of the national education system, such as bullying, deviant and delinquent behavior among teenagers in schools, students' poor academic performance, truancy, etc. (Too Scared for School, UK, 2004; Last Chance Academy, UK, 2013; Excluded: Kicked Out of School, UK, 2015-2016; The Bad Kids, UK, 2016; The Nurture Room: Real Stories, UK, 2017).
It is particularly remarkable that a tendency for individualization in education, transition from teaching "all" to teaching "everybody" in the modern British education system, proclaimed in official documents and government acts, defines the main objective of the new education policy in the 21st century under the motto - "every child matters" [DfES, 2003; , DfES, 2004a; DfES, 2004b; DfES, 2005]. Naturally, it influenced the way of school presentation in British documentary films about school and university education: the authors of the analyzed documentary media texts turned their attention to a particular school student with his or her "small" grieves and experiences instead of the school as a whole body of students and teachers (Excluded: Kicked Out of School, UK, 2015-2016; The Bad Kids, UK, 2016; Educating UK, UK, 2011-2017).
Also, there are documentary short-length films about students with unusual and/or hard life, for example, the film Growing Pains of a Teenage Genius (UK, 2011) about Cameron Thompson, a maths genius. Unfortunately, the teenager suffers from Asperger's Syndrome causing growing social awkwardness. The boy describes his ability to interact very self-critically, calling himself "a talking potato". The film shows how the wunderkind, his parents and friends are coping with the challenges.
At the same time, there has been an upsurge of interest in documentary TV-series about school routine (High School, UK, 2012; Our School, UK, 2016), as well as in documentaries about school education in other countries. For example, in the film British High School Students' School Swap: Korea Style (UK, 2016) three Welsh teenagers swap school life in Pembrokeshire for lessons in Gangnam (Seoul) to find out how the country's students reach such high academic performance.
Fig. 4. Frame from the film British High School Students' School Swap:
Korea Style (UK, 2016)
Some British documentary filmmakers look towards the future: they analyze the history and tendencies in education, re-examine the goals of education, try to predict the future of education (We are the People We've Been Waiting For, UK, 2009; Future Learning, UK, 2012).
When it comes to the private sector of the British education, it is still as unshakable as the British monarchy itself: documentary filmmakers working in the period under study continue to shoot films openly advertising British ancient national traditions of prestigious education, elite boarding-schools and colleges (A Very British School, UK, 2013; Britain's Youngest Boarders, UK, 2010; Young, Bright and on the Right, UK, 2012; Oxford: Travel Guide, UK, 2016, etc.).
It is too early to talk about the democratization of such schools or colleges since they actually look like an "exclusive English club" so far, though, the film Too Poor for Posh School? (UK, 2010) shows a rare case of selecting talented school students from low-income or even immigrant families for elite private school (Harrow) within the framework of a special grant program. The children undergo very difficult examinations and tests in various subjects, and only one or two applicants can be admitted to the school.
A mixed picture also emerges in the USA system of modern school and university education. It has been determined by a number of historic, political and economic reasons that formed the national peculiarities of the American education system: multicultural character of education [Bessarabova, 2008], non-discriminatory practice in education, practice-oriented utilitarian approach to education, incessant monitoring control of educational institutions by authorities and the public, collaboration of schools with various partnership organizations, public nature of education.
Americans have been struggling against different crisis developments in the national system of education for years. The historical evolution of the state education strategy can be traced in the key acts, programmes and initiatives aimed at improving the situation in the education sector: No Child Left Behind Act (2002), Race to the Top (2009), Every Student Succeeds Act (2015), etc. The documents touch upon such urgent issues as the imperfect national education system, mass illiteracy problem, and low academic performance of students.
Naturally, American documentary filmmakers could not but turn their attention to the pressing problems of the modern USA education. In this context, it is necessary to mention a direct publicistic pathos of the author's position reflected in the analyzed media texts about school and university education, so characteristic of the American documentary tradition. Very often, they call for changes in the current education, sometimes in a very expressive or even provocative form. Many documentary films about school and university education were made in this emotional mood: Flunked (USA, 2008), Race to Nowhere (USA, 2009), Waiting for Superman (USA, 2010), The War on Kids (USA, 2009), A National Disgrace (USA, 2011), Teached, USA (2011), College Conspiracy (USA, 2013), Beyond Measure (USA, 2015), etc.
Other documentary films cover the emerging issues and challenges such as reforming and improving the quality of education (Mitchell 20, USA, 2011; American Teacher, USA, 2011; The Cartel, USA, 2009; Teach, USA, 2013; The Revisionaries, USA, 2012), as well as teachers', parents' and students' combat against different defects of the current state system of education: intolerance, social inequality, prejudice, stereotypes, discrimination, budget deficit, etc. That refers to the following films: Waiting for Superman (USA, 2010), Saving Barbara Sizemore, (USA, 2016), The Homestretch (USA, 2014), The Education of Shelby Knox (USA, 2005).
Besides, documentary films about alternative innovative schools have also been produced during this period, and the appearance of such schools is interpreted by the authors of the media texts as a sign of the current state education system failure (If You Build It, USA, 2013; Most Likely to Succeed, USA, 2015; The Providence Effect, USA, 2009; I Learn America, USA, 2013).
On the other hand, there are also positive documentary films that tell the public about the best pedagogical practices of some real American schools, some examples of state programmes supporting promising youth, teenagers from disadvantaged and socially unprotected families, current non-profit educational programmes (Rock School, USA, 2005; Mad Hot Ballroom, USA, 2005; Brooklyn Castle, USA, 2012; Finding the Gold Within, USA, 2014; The Prep School Negj'o, USA, 2014).
Fig. 5. Frame from the film Brooklyn Castle (USA, 2005)
Similar positive documentary films tell the audiences about the implementation of innovative approaches and technologies in regular schools (If You Build It, USA, 2013; Room to Breathe, USA, 2013; Most Likely to Succeed, USA, 2015). The same refers to documentary films about talented teachers - innovators and enthusiasts of the teaching profession (The Hobart Shakespeareans, USA, 2005; Discovering Gloria, USA, 2017).
Fig. 6. Frames from the film If You Build It (USA, 2013)
Sociocultural, ideological and political contexts
In the USA as well as in the UK there exists an unspoken confrontation of state and private education sectors. On the one hand, the governments of these countries declare the policy of equal education opportunities for children and adolescents from various social, economic and ethnic backgrounds, but, actually, it turns out that high-quality but fee-paying education is accessible to very few citizens.
In the late 1990s, to improve the quality of education in state schools, the USA government initiated establishing the so-called charter schools - schools that receive public funds, are run independently and are not required to meet the general school regulations. On the other hand, they are supposed to guarantee high-quality education. That is why they are given mush freedom from the government and can use different innovations [Bokova, 2016]. They are tuition-free to parents but the admission usually depends on a random lottery.
The 2010 documentary Waiting for Superman (USA, 2010) examines this procedure. The pathos film slogan runs: "The fate of our country won't be decided on a battlefield, it will be determined in a classroom". The authors of the media text examine the drawbacks of the American public education system and compare different types of primary and secondary educational institutions available in the USA: state schools, private schools, and charter schools. They come to conclusion that public schools prevent talented students from getting quality education and promote charter schools as the only possible alternative. This is a film-advertisement of prominent charter schools which are offered as a panacea for the current educational problems. The end of the film is very symbolic: viewers see a highly emotional scene of the lottery selection and a few lucky children - future charter school students crying with joy.
On the other hand, another documentary film about charter schools serves as a means of adverse publicity - The Lottery (USA, 2010), since it highlights the controversy surrounding public and charter schools in the USA, the educational inequalities of public and charter schools, violation of a joint standardized educational environment, teachers' dissatisfaction with the education reform movement, the opposition from the teachers' unions to charter schools, etc.
The film presents a story of four families from Harlem and the Bronx taking part in the lottery for one of the most successful charter schools in New York City. The parents and their children literally pray to be admitted to the school since it is their only chance to get quality and tuition-free education.
Fig. 7. Frame from the documentary film The Lottery (USA, 2010)
Also, references and allusions to charter schools can be met in some other documentary films about the US public education (Flunked, USA, 2008; The Providence Effect, USA, 2009; American Promise, USA, 2013; The Prep School Negro, USA, 2014).
A content analysis of the British and American documentary films about school and university education produced in the 2000s has enabled us to find out a wide range of urgent social, economic, ethnic and cultural contradictions and challenges in the modern system of education in the English-speaking countries:
- socio-cultural and academic assimilation issues of children and youth from immigrant families (Our Spirits Don't Speak English, USA, 2008; First Generation, USA, 2011; Underwater Dreams, USA, 2011; The Graduates, USA, 2013; I Learn America, USA, 2013);
- ethnic minorities discrimination issues, education of marginalized and high-risk groups, education of children from low-income families, ethnic chauvinism in education (Teached, USA, 2011; Precious Knowledge, USA, 2011);
- racial prejudices and stereotypes in and outside schools (I'm Not Racist...Am I?, USA, 2013; Finding the Gold Within, USA, 2014), combating racial prejudices in the classroom (Paper Clips, USA, 2004);
- social aggression and bullying in schools (Too Scared for School, UK, 2004; The Bully Project, USA, 2011-2012);
- social inequality in education, inaccessibility of quality education in poor provincial towns or economically disadvantaged or criminal city districts (Lalee's Kin: The Legacy of Cotton, USA, 2001; The Pact, USA, 2006; Rich Hill, USA, 2014);
- education of children and youth from broken homes, problem teenagers, homeless children; correctional education, rehabilitation of difficult children (The Boys of Baraka, USA, 2005; Who Cares About Kelsey?, USA, 2012; Room to Breathe, USA, 2013; 180 Days: Inside an American High School, USA, 2013; Doing it for Me, USA, 2013; Академия последнего шанса / Last Chance Academy, UK, 2013; Last Chance High, USA, 2014; The Homestretch, USA, 2014; Excluded: Kicked Out of School, UK, 2015-2016; The Bad Kids, UK, 2016; The Nurture Room: Real Stories, UK, 2017);
- integrated and inclusive education of students with special educational needs, education of individuals with exceptional talents and skills (Educating Peter, Graduating Peter, USA, 1992-2001; Growing Pains of a Teenage Genius, UK, 2011; Extreme Love: Autism, USA, 2012; The Address, USA, 2014; Best Kept Secret, USA 2013);
- a low social and economic status of school teachers and hardships of the teaching profession (American Teacher, USA, 2011; The Road to Teach, USA, 2015);
- socio-economic, ideological, political problems of higher education in the English-speaking countries (Brainwashing 101, USA, 2004; Brainwashing 201: The Second Semester, USA, 2004; From the Top Down, USA, 2006; Indoctrinate U, USA, 2007; College Conspiracy, USA, 2013; The Ivory Tower, USA, 2014).
The world outlook of people in the media texts
The majority of students irrespective of their age, social status, origin, family background, consider education to be their ultimate value and top priority in life. For many characters of the analyzed media texts education is the main condition to fulfill their dreams, become happy, get a prestigious profession and various benefits in the future. At the same time, someone's academic failure, to say nothing of school attrition, is treated as disgrace, a personal and communal tragedy. Senior school students, for example, undergo a serious stress and depression when taking their school exams and tests (Race to Nowhere, USA, 2009; Beyond Measure, USA, 2015). Moreover, they give responsible consideration to their future career (In 500 Words or Less, USA, 2009).
The responsibility of the grown-up characters in the analyzed media texts - teachers and parents - is to make it possible for students to get quality secondary and higher education. That is why many of them are forced to fight for the rights of their children and combat the imperfect system of education in their country (The Cartel, USA, 2009; Precious Knowledge, USA, 2011; Rich Hill, USA, 2014; Saving Barbara Sizemore, USA, 2016, etc.).
Fig. 8. Frame from the film The Ivory Tower (USA, 2014)
At the same time, the way to realize this cherished dream of getting high quality education is too difficult for many citizens. The authors of the analyzed media texts try to form an idea in the national consciousness that it is necessary to develop the following basic traits of character to achieve this goal: personal leadership, self-confidence, active and independent civic and political position, autonomy, focus on the future, belief in progress, patriotism, tolerance, friendly sociability, good manners, creative skills, etc.
Structure and narrative techniques used in the media texts
The structure, plot, representativity, ethics, genre modification peculiarities, iconography, characters can be summarized as follows:
Time and place of action in the media texts: modern UK and USA schools and universities (state, alternative, private; secular and religious; special schools for students excluded from regular schools; special schools for students with special educational needs, etc.). The action takes place in the city (big or provincial) where the school or university is located, sometimes in a rural district. Besides, very often the action is transferred to the students' dwelling places. The action in the media text can last a day, an academic year or several years.
Household items and furnishing in the media texts: the furniture in the state educational institutions is functional. The students' dwelling conditions depend on the socio-economic status and the prosperity of their families. The private schools and colleges are well-equipped; they provide good libraries, sporting facilities, etc.
Genre modifications: documentary drama, newsreel, report, biography, film-protest, popular-science film, TV series, diary, etc.
Techniques of representing reality: the characters are presented realistically; they are real teachers, students, their parents, school or university administration, educational experts, politicians, journalists, public observers, and other categories of citizens interested in education.
Types of characters
Age-groups: students of primary and secondary schools; university students; grown-ups of different age; teachers are of different age, gender and social background.
Level of education: school and university students' education level corresponds to their grade or course of study; there are also students who either fall behind their peers or, on the contrary, surpass them or have special talents or skills; school and university teachers are, generally, highly qualified specialists, experienced and competent, eager to help their students; there are also young inexperienced teachers or intending teachers; the education level of other characters can be any.
Social status, profession: students from state educational institutions and their parents are from different social backgrounds, mostly, - the middle class; students from alternative/private
schools and colleges either come from well-to-do families, sometimes from foreign countries, or (more rarely) from socially-unprotected, disadvantaged families if they were lucky to win the lottery admission to the prestigious school or college; there are also documentary films about the destiny of students from low-income families, high-risk groups, socially vulnerable groups (children from one-parent or large families, juvenile delinquents, former drug takers, homeless children, etc.).
Fig. 9. Frames from the documentary film The Bad Kids (UK, 2016)
Marital status: the family status of adult characters (teachers, parents, administration) can be different or is not mentioned.
Appearance, clothes, constitution, traits of character, speech: students attending state schools are dressed according to their age and social status. They wear convenient casual clothes. Students attending prestigious private educational institutions are traditionally dressed in a very elegant school or college uniform.
Fig. 10. Frame from the documentary film A Very British School (UK, 2013)
The most typical plot transformations of media texts about school and university education:
- plot variant 1: school students are victims of the ineffective education system; they suffer from fatigue, pressure, testing, endless achievement race, competitions, etc. Teachers and parents support and assist their pupils to cope with the challenges they face in every possible way (I'm a Promise, USA, 1993; Race to Nowhere, USA, 2009; Waiting for Superman, USA, 2010; Teached,, USA, 2011; Teach, USA, 2013; Beyond Measure, USA, 2015);
- plot variant 2: students, teachers and parents combat the imperfect education system, defend their rights; protest against the forced closure of their school or university, against the elimination of the programme or course by the local authorities, against inefficient school or
university management, against officials' despotism, against ignorance and intolerance (The Education of Shelby Knox, USA, 2005; From the Top Down, USA, 2006; The Providence Effect, USA, 2009; The Cartel, USA, 2009; Precious Knowledge, USA, 2011; The Revisionaries, USA, 2012; Listen, USA, 2013; Saving Barbara Sizemore, USA, 2016); in the end, they either achieve justice or lose the unequal struggle with the system;
- plot variant 3: students from low-income families, socially-unprotected groups or high-risk groups fight for getting education; they get assistance from devoted teachers and educators (First Generation, USA, 2011; The Homestretch, USA, 2014; Rich Hill, USA, 2014);
- plot variant 4: teachers, educators support "trouble" adolescents and at-risk teenagers with disciplinary problems; sometimes the students are excluded from ordinary schools and attend special schools for screwed-up kids; teachers help them to continue education (The Rule, USA, 2013; Last Chance Academy, UK, 2013; Room to Breathe, USA, 2013; Doing it for Me, USA, 2013; Excluded: Kicked Out of School, UK, 2015-2016; The Bad Kids, UK, 2016; The Nurture Room: Real Stories, UK, 2017); the main aim of such special schools is to promote the students' further socialization and to give them some practical training;
- plot variant 5: Afro-American students (often from deprived districts, disadvantaged families) are admitted to a prestigious private school due to some grant or special programme supporting gifted youth, or their personal high academic achievement and motivation, or due to solid friendship; they overcome learning disabilities and communication difficulties, learn how to get along well with others, find their place in life (The Pact, USA, 2006; American Promise, USA, 2013; Finding the Gold Within, USA, 2014; The Prep School Negro, USA, 2014);
- plot variant 6: Latin-American students or native-born Americans, or immigrant students without knowing the state language, study in a regular American school and face different difficulties such as culture conflicts, language barriers, discrimination, etc. (Our Spirits Don't Speak English, USA, 2008; The Graduates, USA, 2013; I Learn America, USA, 2013); teachers and parents help them to adapt to new sociocultural conditions;
- plot variant 7: progressive teachers, enthusiasts introduce innovative technologies in education, new educational programmes; develop their students' talents by encouraging them to participate in creative projects, different extra-curricular activities and competitions such as concerts, play production, design-projects, construction, etc.; parents and teachers help their students get over difficulties and win personal or team victories (Small Wonders, USA, 1995; The Hobart Shakespeareans, USA, 2005; Mad Hot Ballroom, USA, 2005; The Cartel, USA, 2009; Brooklyn Castle, USA, 2012; If You Build It, USA, 2013; Most Likely to Succeed, USA, 2015; Discovering Gloria, USA, 2017);
- plot variant 8: parents and teachers assist students with special educational needs to overcome problems connected with studying, communication, development (Educating Peter; Graduating Peter, USA, 1992-2001; Extreme Love: Autism, USA, 2012; Best Kept Secret, USA 2013; The Address, USA, 2014);
- plot variant 9: university students and educators discuss and critically analyze the challenges of the current system of higher education such as high tuition fees, education credits and debts, brainwashing, ideological conformism, positive discrimination, ineffective models of management, etc. (Brainwashing 101, USA, 2004; Brainwashing 201: The Second Semester, USA, 2004; From the Top Down, USA, 2006; Indoctrinate U, USA, 2007; College Conspiracy, USA, 2013; The Ivory Tower, USA, 2014).
The plots of the documentary films about private school sector have not undergone any alterations and traditionally tell about the advantages and exclusive academic opportunities provided for students attending such schools (Britain's Youngest Boarders, UK, 2010; Too Poor for Posh School? UK, 2010; Young, Bright and on the Right, UK, 2012; A Very English Education, UK, 2013; A Very British School, UK, 2013; Oxford: Travel Guide, UK, 2016).
Conclusions
The hermeneutic analysis of British and American documentary films about school and university education (1954-2017) enabled us to draw the conclusions that UK and US documentary films:
- being the expression of the media texts authors' active civic-mindedness, have always sought to raise public awareness of problem areas of the national system of education;
- traditionally focus on critical re-evaluation of the reforming and current state of education in the English-speaking countries;
- involve a wide range of relevant topics and plots about school and after-school education based on real events and covered in other media - the press, television, internet;
- use a variety of genre modifications to represent reality (drama, newsreel, report, biography, film-protest, popular-science film, TV series, diary, etc.);
- realistically reflect both positive (multicultural education; struggle against racism, poverty and mass illiteracy; reforming and improving the quality of education; financial support of talented youth from economically disadvantaged families; national traditions of prestigious private education, etc.) and negative (discrimination against ethnic minorities and youth from low-income families; aggression and bullying in schools, social exclusion and inequalities in education, a low socio-economic status of teachers, etc.) aspects of social, political, cultural and educational life spheres in the English-speaking countries;
- emphasize personal, public, social, political and economic importance and value of high-quality and accessible education for every citizen, particularly in the current global context.
Filmography
British and American documentary films about school and university education
Thursday's Children. UK, 1954.
Eton College. UK, 1967.
A Space to Grow. USA, 1968.
The Best Days. UK, 1977.
Radley College: Public School. UK, 1980.
The Gentlemen Factory - Eton. UK, 1980.
Queens': A Cambridge College. UK, 1985.
All American High. USA, 1987
The Children's Storefront. USA, 1988.
I'm a Promise. USA, 1993.
Small Wonders. USA, 1995.
Inside Eton. UK, 1995.
Lalee's Kin: The Legacy of Cotton. USA, 2001.
Educating Peter; Graduating Peter. USA, 1992-2001.
Paper Clips. USA, 2004.
Too Scared for School. UK, 2004.
Brainwashing 101. USA, 2004.
Brainwashing 201: The Second Semester. USA, 2004.
The Hobart Shakespeareans. USA, 2005.
Mad Hot Ballroom. USA, 2005.
Rock School. UK, 2005.
The Boys of Baraka. USA, 2005.
The Education of Shelby Knox. USA, 2005.
From the Top Down. USA, 2006.
The Pact. USA. 2006.
Indoctrinate U. USA, 2007.
Resolved. USA, 2007.
Our Spirits Don't Speak English. USA, 2008.
Flunked. USA, 2008.
The Providence Effect. USA, 2009.
The Cartel. USA, 2009.
In 500 Words or Less, USA, 2009.
We are the People We've Been Waiting For. UK, 2009.
The War on Kids. USA, 2009.
Race to Nowhere. USA, 2009.
Educating UK. UK, 2011-2017.
The Lottery, USA, 2010.
Britain's Youngest Boarders. UK, 2010.
Too Poor for Posh School? UK, 2010.
Waiting for Superman. USA, 2010.
Growing Pains of a Teenage Genius. UK, 2011.
Mitchell 20. USA, 2011.
First Generation. USA, 2011.
Underwater Dreams. USA, 2011.
The Bully Project. USA, 2011-2012.
Precious Knowledge. USA, 2011.
Teached. USA, 2011.
American Teacher. USA, 2011.
A National Disgrace. USA, 2011.
Go Public: A Day in the Life of an American School District. USA, 2012.
Young, Bright and on the Right. UK, 2012.
The New Public. USA, 2012.
High School. UK, 2012.
Brooklyn Castle. USA, 2012.
Extreme Love: Autism. USA, 2012.
Who Cares About Kelsey? USA, 2012.
Future Learning. UK, 2012.
The Revisionaries. USA, 2012.
A Very English Education. UK, 2013.
Last Chance Academy. UK, 2013.
Listen. USA, 2013.
College Conspiracy. USA, 2013.
I'm Not Racist...Am I? USA, 2013.
I Learn America. USA, 2013.
The Graduates. USA, 2013.
Best Kept Secret. USA, 2013.
Room to Breathe. USA, 2013.
Doing it for Me. USA, 2013.
180 Days: Inside an American High School. USA, 2013.
Teach. USA, 2013.
If You Build It. USA, 2013.
A Very British School. UK, 2013.
American Promise. USA, 2013.
The Rule. USA, 2013.
Rich Hill. USA, 2014.
Last Chance High. USA, 2014.
Finding the Gold Within. USA, 2014.
The Prep School Negro. USA, 2014.
The Ivory Tower. USA, 2014.
The Address, USA, 2014.
The Homestretch. USA, 2014.
Beyond Measure. USA, 2015.
All American High Revisited. USA, 2015.
Most Likely to Succeed. USA, 2015.
The Road to Teach. USA, 2015.
Excluded: Kicked Out of School. UK, 2015-2016.
The Bad Kids. UK, 2016.
British High School Students' School Swap: Korea Style. UK, 2016. Saving Barbara Sizemore. USA, 2016. Our School. UK, 2016.
Oxford: Travel Guide. UK, 2016.
The Nurture Room: Real Stories. UK, 2017.
Discovering Gloria. USA, 2017.
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