CC BY
20
A FORMATION AND CHANGES OF RUSSIA S PERCEPTION IN JAPAN: HISTORICAL SURVEY
Osmanov Evgeniy Magomedovich, PhD of Historical science, Associate Professor, Department of Theory of Social Development of Asia and Africa Countries, Saint-Petersburg State University, Saint-Petersburg
The article reflects historical problems of Russian-Japanese relations and gives an image of Japanese perception of Russia from the first meeting in XVIII century till the beginning of Russian-Japanese war in 1904.
Keywords: Russian-Japanese relations; Japanese perception of Russia; stereotypes.
S >
<
X
ш
s n u
LU =Г
S
Q_
О h-a s
360
УДК 94
ВАК РФ 07.00.03 © Османов Е.М., 2019
ОСМАНОВ Евгений Магомедович, кандидат исторических наук, доцент кафедры Теории общественного развития стран Азии и Африки, Санкт-Петербургский государс твенный университет, Сан к т-Пе тер бург
ФОРМИРОВАНИЕ И ИЗМЕНЕНИЕ ВОСПРИЯТИЯ ОБРАЗА РОССИИ В ЯПОНИИ: ИСТОРИЧЕСКИЙ ОБЗОР
Статья отражает исторические проблемы российско-японских отношений и дает представление о японском восприятии России с момента первого знакомства в начале XVIII в. и до русско-японской войны 1904-1905 гг. Ключевые слова: русско-японские отношения; восприятие России в Японии; стереотипы.
Despite the geographical proximity and small (194.3 km) plot of the state border, modern relations between Russia and Japan cannot be considered fully formed and mature. Until now, in the bilateral dialogue there are a number of issues that prevent the development of full-fledged dialogue between the two countries. This situation is largely retained due to mutual stereotypes in the perception of each other. Despite the fact that the official story of Russian-Japanese relations has little more than 150 years, and the history of familiarity is not more than three centuries, the modern image of Russia in Japan is largely based on information that has long been untrue. In order to understand what factors determine the perception of Russia in Japan, it is need to refer to the history of bilateral relations.
For nearly 300 years Japan was a closed country and its contacts with foreigners were very selective. The history of Russian-Japanese familiarity has more than 320 years, if we start counting from 1695, when the vessel of merchant from Osaka Dembey shipwrecked near Russian coast. Dembey fared in Russia in a very important historical period in the era of Peter I great reform activity. At the same time, Japan continues to adhere to the policy of isolation and did not want, unlike the Russia, to contact with the outside world.
In 1701 Dembey was taken to Moscow, and in January of 1702 he had a meeting with Peter I. Thus, the first Japanese man caught by fate in Russia, was adopted "at the highest state level." The meeting with Dembey was possible due to the interest of the Russian tsar to all rare and unusual, and Japan was seemed as outlandish overseas country, about which Peter undoubtedly wanted to receive information. It is for this reason that Peter issued a decree "explore Japan and the establishment of trade relations" [2, 22]. Moreover, according to the czar decree of 1705, Dembey was ordered to start teaching Japanese language at Russian Navigation School in St. Petersburg.
So, the information collection about Japan was started, although it should be noted that Peter's interest to Japan was exclusively personal and there was no practical need in the establishment of official contacts with this country, as well as its study.
At the beginning of the XVIII century scholar Arai Hakuseki in "Europe records" (Seyo kibun) wrote about Russia as follows: "Moscovia (Russia) located in the north-east of Europe. In winter months the ice thickness can be more than 1 jo (3.03 m)... "[6]. This information Arai Hakuseki received from Christian missionary Sidotti, and it is clear that data do not in any way correspond to reality. The Dutch, by all measures seeking
to preserve its monopoly on trade relations with Japan, contributed to the formation of Russia's image as a harsh and wild country, from which emanates a direct threat to Japan.
In 1765, exiled to Kamchatka Pole Moritz Benevskaya sent a letter to Japanese authorities in which he stated that Russia is ready to attack Japan.The imaginary threat is so firmly entrenched in the minds of Japanese people, that a proverb "Orosia wa osorosii" which can be translated as "a threat from Russia" was born.
Thus, even before the direct acquaintance with its northern neighbor, in Japan a rather biased attitude and perception of Russia has developed. Only after Japanese castaways began to return in Japan from Russia, information about our country become more believable. Nevertheless, the perception of Russia as a country of eternal cold and ice has strengthened in the Japanese mind. And today, this image continues to exist, as evidenced by the fact that at the first meeting with the Russian, Japanese people like to ask about cold in Russia.
In the reign of Anna loanovna survivors of a shipwreck off the coast of Kamchatka Japanese Soza and Gonza were brought to St. Petersburg. They also taught the Japanese language at the Academy of Sciences School. However, until the end of the XVIII century there were no attempts to enter into official relations with Japan.
In Japan information about Russia was extremely superficial and often implausible, because it came from the Dutch, in which interest was to represent Russia in a bad light, in order to preserve its monopoly on trade relations with isolated Japan.
The situation is beginning to change from the end of the XVIII century, when the Russian government, occupied exclusively in European issues, the problem of development and consolidation of Russian influence in the Far East has given into the hands of private companies. A marked increasing of interest to Japan at that time was due to the fact that these companies needed a cheaper way to provide Russian Pacific territories, stretching from the Kuril Islands to California. Delivery of goods by sea circumnavigation way or through poorly mastered Siberia took a lot of time and was very expensive. So Japan was considered as a good place for the supply base and the company's executives began to request Catherine II to sending a mission to Japan to establish official contacts with it.
In order to meet the request of merchants and industrialists, in September of 1791 Ekaterina's decree named "On the establishment
of trade relations with Japan" was sent to Irkutsk Governor-General Peel. In 1792, a headed by A. Laksman expedition went from Okhotsk to the Japanese cost. It is noteworthy that this mission was represented as Peel's own deal and that central Russian government has no interest and concern to it. It was made in attempt to avoid possible friction with Holland, tightly guarding its trading monopoly. Anyway, the main task of the expedition was just establishing bilateral trade relations.
In June of 1793 the reply of the Japanese government was given. It allowed the arrival of Russian ships in the port of Nagasaki.Thus, Russia has become the second foreign power after the Netherlands, which has received approval from the Japanese government on trade relations [1, 131]. It was an obvious success of Russia, which, unfortunately, was unable to take advantage due to Russia's focus on covered by French Revolution Europe. Russia's delay in trade was used by the Dutch, who began to disseminate information about the allegedly aggressive plans of Russia to Japan.
In 1799 Russian-American Company was founded.The Company became the "ambassador" of Russia in the Pacific [8, 14]. At the request of the company in 1803, Russia again sent an embassy to Japan. The mission was headed by Company's commissioner N. Rezanov. The task of the expedition was to establish trade relations with Japan. Also there was a special order to comply with all Japanese rules and does not use force. However, by that time the situation has changed completely. The anti Russia activity of the Dutch has a success. In early 1805 the Japanese government has canceled previously issued permit for trade and refused to conduct any negotiations on the establishment of trade relations. A few years later, in 1807 Dutch rumors about Russia received the actual confirmation.
Mission failure forced Rezanov, without any knowledge and permission of the Russian government, send to Japanese shores ships under the command of N. Hvostov and G. Davylov "to punish" the Japanese. In the result of their action a few Japanese coastal villages were burned and their inhabitants were captured. Despite the fact that for the unauthorized actions Khvostov and Davydov was brought to trial, Russian-Japanese relations received a hard strike. In Japan, it was ordered to build a fortress against the Russian, and to keep troops in the northern regions [6,142]. Undoubtedly, this episode greatly strengthened Russophobes sentiments in Japan.
> <
X
LU
s ^
o
Lg T
s
Q_
O h-O S
362
Sometimes later Japanese "answer" was given. In May 1811 the Japanese captured Captain V. Golovnin group, which on the sloop "Diana" was carried out an inventory of the Kuril Islands and the Sea of Okhotsk. Only after many assurances that the Russian government did not participate in the actions of Khvostov and Davydov, in autumn 1813, with the active assistance of the Japanese merchant Takada Kahei, Golovnin and friends were released home.
In the next half-century (up to 1855), there were no attempts to enter in relation with Japan. Meanwhile, the Dutch in Japan continued to spread false information about Russia. They said that Russia and Britain want to divide Japan and China. In Japan with the help of the Dutch such works as "The story about the attack by Russian and British troops in the Netherlands", "Description of Russian Empire" and others were written. Golovnin noted that the book's information referred to Russia is false or out-of-date, but the Japanese completely believe it [3, 156-170].
The Japanese believed the Dutch, because the policy of isolation did not allow checking their stories from other sources. All this intensified the Japanese dislike of Russia. In Russia, after the incident with Golovnin interest to Japan completely vanished and Russian foreign policy has focused exclusively on Europe.
Thus, the first stage of the Russian-Japanese connections can hardly be called productive. Failures of Russia in dialogue with Japan explain the lack of clear objectives and motivation for the relations establishment. For a long time interest to Japan was limited solely by the desire of the officials to learn unfamiliar outlandish people and way of his life. Russia's exploration of Far East in the end of the XVIII century resulted to the emergence of the economic interest in the establishment of trade relations with Japan. However, due to the historical orientation of Russian foreign policy to Europe and existed connections with China, Japan was not considered as a priority country. Russia's policy toward Japan has been unsystematic, unclear, not sincere in their goals and aspirations [8, 7].
A new page in Russian-Japanese relations was open in the second half of the XIX century. Increasing of Russia interest to Japan, which is still adhered to the policy of self-isolation, was summoned not by a necessity but by desire of the Russian government "to keep up" by the US and Britain in the struggle for spheres of influence in the Far East.
In 1854 the Americans forced Japan to sign an agreement giving the America the right to trade with Japan and a number of privileges to Americans in Japan. As well as America, Russia began to prepare own expedition, whose leadership was entrusted to Admiral E.V. Putiatin.
Russian mission received an order to achieve the opening of Japanese ports to trade by peaceful means only, and for the first time the question of border demarcation was raised. (This question was raised as a result of Russia fear that Britain can foothold in the Kuril Islands and Sakhalin).
Russian-Japanese negotiations began in January 1854. Their course was complicated by the influence of the Netherlands. The Japanese side has sought every way to delay the negotiations, but, nevertheless, at the end of January Putyatin received a document which guaranteed an agreement conclusion. A year later, 26 January of 1855 the first Russia-Japanese treaty was signed (Treaty of Shimoda). As well as US-Japan agreement, treaty between Russia and Japan was unequal for Japan. Although theTreaty establishes a "permanent peace and sincere friendship between Russia and Japan," the signing of this agreement for the Japanese side was a necessary measure.
Meanwhile, the politically correct action of Russia, decency and friendliness of Russian, contributed to certain changes in the perception by the Japanese of its northern neighbor. As Akidzuki Toshiyuki had noted that in the Edo period Russian often were more attractive than other foreigners, such as the British or Dutch. The British seemed "dishonest and self-serving," while Russian "noble and generous aristocrats." Many Japanese scientists have even called for the authorities to use the experience of the Peter I reforms in Japan [5,54].
Thus, the second stage of the Russian-Japanese relations began in circumstances of Great Power expansion and struggle for Far East. Japan, the sovereignty of which was largely disadvantaged, immediately after the unequal treaties were signed, began to look for a ways to chancel them. Looking ahead, it should be said that the solution of this problem Japan has found in its own military expansion. In general, at the time of Russian-Japanese agreement signing and the beginning of official relations with Japan, the Japanese interests were not taken into account. For the Western powers, including Russia, Japan has gradually become an arena of country's struggle for domination the in the Far East.
In August of 1858 a trade agreement was signed between Russia and Japan, which greatly expanded the rights of Russian citizens in Japan. According to one of the treaties' article, in September of 1858 the first Russian consul I. Goshkevich arrived in Japan.
However, despite the conclusion of a comprehensive treaty, Russian-Japanese relations remained extremely unstable. At that stage they were complicated by the border question. Under the 1855 treaty the problem was resolved only partially. "The refuse of Japan to recognize the Russian possession of Sakhalin was due mainly to the fact that the international position of Russia was quite weak as a result of the Crimean War [7,129].
From 1868 the Japanese government has launched a program of resettlement of the island by Japanese and that fact led to serious clashes with the Russian. The situation was critical, and Japan agreed to resume the dialogue, which restarted in 1872. In 1872-1874 there was no result, but finally, in May of 1875, the parties reached an agreement under which Sakhalin completely passed into Russian possession, and Kurile Islands passed into Japanese possession.
By the time of border demarcation, Japan held a very successful reform, through which it started active foreign policy and began to think about strengthening own influence in the region. Moreover, Japan began to closely monitor the Russian actions in Siberia and in the Far East, and has sent various missions to St. Petersburg, whose task was to collect information about Russia.
In the 80-90's years of XIX century Japanese made several trips across Siberia. The most noted were a trip of lieutenant general of the Imperial army and state councilor Kiyotaka Kuroda in 1886 and the "journey" of Lieutenant Colonel Yasumasa Fukushima in 1893.
In general, in Russian-Japanese relations the period from 1875 to 1894 can be considered a fairly flat. The main question of the boundary demarcation was settled, and it seemed that Russia and Japan will go to the convergence. However, this did not happen. During 20 years, Japan has become a strong power in a military plane, which was to pursue its own geopolitical goals in the region. Already since the 70 s years of XIX century a number of Japanese politicians openly stated the need for Japan to seize Taiwan, Korea and even China. In detailed plans that have emerged in the 80 s, Russia not only was one of the possible allies of Japan, but often viewed as an object of possible military intervention. In this situation, Russia's position remained extremely
sluggish. There were formal relations with Japan only and the trade turnover was extremely low.
A great negative impact on bilateral relations
was given by the so-called "incident in Otsu" in
1891, when the future Emperor Nicholas II was
assassinated during his visit over Japan. A
prominent Russian statesman A.P. Isvolsky noted 03
[4,160] that"... an impingement in Kyoto though 5
not caused him [Nicholas] great harm, but ... oj
influenced the direction of the Russian Far Eastern h-
policy, which had such epilogue as Russian- ^
Japanese war". Indeed, from the 90's relations ^
between Russia and Japan began to rapidly ^
deteriorate. One reason for this was the so called £
00
"demarche of three powers" that followed the x Sino-Japanese War of 1894-95 from Russia, France ^ and Germany.
The essence of this demarche was the L>-following: due to the victory in the war against <C China, Japan received a number of areas, including the Liaodong Peninsula. However, the j occupation of that territory by Japan gave her a KJ\T v favorable position to consolidate in Manchuria, which was Russia's interests area. Therefore, in April of 1895 in accordance with Russian initiative, three countries "advised" Japan to abandon the peninsula. Japan had no choice but to accept the 363 offer. This fact has become an important link in the chain of the growing Russian-Japanese confrontation. In this fight Japan and Russia were not going to yield to each other.
At the beginning of XXI century between the two countries an open struggle had already begun. It was caused by a fixation Russia in Manchuria, and its attempts to consolidate in Korea. Because Japan had an own plan to subordinate Korea, of course it was completely unacceptable. A crisis in an extremely tense relationship rose rapidly.
In 1903 in Japan was formed anti-Russian Society Tyro "doshikai", which promotes the idea of the necessity of war with Russia.
With the beginning of Russian-Japanese war in February of 1904 bilateral relations were interrupted. It is quite natural that during the War formation of the extremely negative image of Russia and Russian in Japan continued. Through skillful ideological mass treatment, and concealment of losses of the Japanese army, the Japanese believed that Japan has the right to lay claim to a bulk portion of Russian territory in the Far East.
Cartoons in the Japanese press depicted the Russian as cowards, idlers, thieves and robbers. There were a lot of pictures of obscene content. Russia was represented in the form of an aggressive animal, usually a bear, an eagle or an
octopus. Paradoxically, but during the war there was a formation of another image of Russia, as a bastion country of Orthodox values. It was due to acts of the Russian Orthodox mission in Japan that has earned for its activity the respect of the Japanese.
As a winner of the war, Japan has sought to push Russia from the Far East. According a peace treaty, Russia lost territories which were leased from the China, and was forced to give an own half of Sakhalin Island to the south of the 50th parallel to Japan.
With the end of the war, Russia lost its position in the Far East and appealed to Europe and, above all, to England.
References
1. Cherevko K. Zarozdenie russko-yaponskih otnoshenii XVII-XIX vv. - Moscow, 1999.
2. Fainberg E. Russko-yaponskie otnosheniya v 1697-1875 gg. - Moscow, 1960.
3. Golovnin V. Zapiski o priklyucheniyah v plenu u yaponchev. - Moscow, 2004.
4. Izvol'skii, A. Vospominaniya. - Moscow, 1989.
5. Mihailova, Y. Rossia kak mif // Rodina. - 2005. -№10.
6. Nakamura S.Yaponchi i russkie. Izistorii kontaktov. - Moscow, 1983.
7. Ocherki novoi istorii Yaponii. - Moscow, 1958.
8. Podalko P. Yaponiya v sud'bah rossiyan. Ocherki istorii charskoi diplomatii i rossiiskoi diaspori v Yaponii. - Moscow, 2004.
