A CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF WESTERN INTERVENTION IN FOREIGN NATIONS: A CASE STUDY OF UKRAINE AND VENEZUELA Текст научной статьи по специальности «Политологические науки»

A CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF WESTERN INTERVENTION IN FOREIGN NATIONS: A CASE STUDY OF UKRAINE AND VENEZUELA

JOSEPH LUTTA, Pwani University (Mombasa, Kenya)

https://doi.org/10.17589/2309-8678-2019-7-4-30-72

The end of the Cold War triggered the spread of multiparty politics across the global south and the former Soviet Union. The western democracies argued this form of governance would ensure the rule of law, human rights and constitutionalism. However, in the recent past a worrisome trend has emerged where these global powers support opposition leaders in order to oust legitimate but antagonistic elected leaders in foreign. More often than not, this political change is engineered in wanton disregard of the country's constitution and the relevant provisions of international law. This geopolitical conundrum is portrayed by the purported ousting of President Viktor Yanukovych of Ukraine in 2014 and most recen tly Presiden t Nicolás Maduro in Venezuela. Despite being the duly elected leaders of their respective countries, they were illegitimately ousted opposition leaders supported by western powers. In the same vein, these political changes usually initiated using force contrary to the relevant provisions of the United Nations Charter and other relevant principles of international law. Furthermore, the International Court of Justice (ICJ) has established a concrete body of jurisprudence on this subject matter though the same is yet to be codified in international law. Broadly speaking, this paper argues this practice is unequivocally illegal and equivalent to infringement upon the sovereignty and territorial integrity of these countries.

Keywords: democracy; foreign intervention; international law; Ukraine; Venezuela.

Recommended citation: Joseph Lutta, A Critical Analysis of Western Intervention in Foreign Nations: A Case Study of Ukraine and Venezuela, 7(4) Russian Law Journal 30-72 (2019).

Table of Contents

General Background

1. Introduction

1.1. International Legal Instruments

1.1.1. Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR)

1.1.2. International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR)

1.1.3. International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR)

1.1.4. Declaration on Principles of International Law Concerning Friendly Relations and Co-Operation Among States in Accordance with the Charter of the United Nations

1.1.5. General Assembly Resolution of Declaration on the Inadmissibility of Intervention in the Domestic Affairs of States and the Protection

of their Independence and Sovereignty

1.1.6. Principle of Permanent Sovereignty over Natural Resources in International Law

1.1.7. The Applicability of Vicarious Liability in Public International Law

2. Jurisprudence on Sovereignty and Territorial Integrity

2.1. Nicaragua v. USA (Case Concerning the Military and Paramilitary Activities in and Against Nicaragua)

2.2. USA v. Iran (Case Concerning United States Diplomatic and Consular Staff in Tehran)

2.3. Iran v. USA (Case Concerning Oil Platforms)

2.4. Advisory Opinion on the Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons

2.5. Yugoslavia v. NATO (Case Concerning Legality of Use of Force in International Law)

2.6. Advisory Opinion Concerning Legal Consequences

of the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory

2.7. Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Uganda

(Case Concerning Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo)

3. Democracy in Ukraine and Venezuela 3.1. Democracy in Ukraine

3.1.1. History of Ukraine

3.1.2. Post-Soviet Era from 1992-2004

3.1.3. The Era Orange Revolution and the Reign of Viktor Yushchenko

3.1.4. Ukraine, Russia and the European Union Under the Reign of Viktor Yanukovych

3.1.5. Ukraine, Russia and NATO

3.1.6. Legal Issues Surrounding the Ouster of Viktor Yanukovych

3.1.6.1. The Unconstitutionality of the Ousting of President Yanukovych

3.1.6.2. illegality of the Ousting of President Yanukovych from Office 3.2. Venezuela

3.2.1. Background Study

3.2.2. The Rise of Hugo Chávez and Bolivarianism

3.2.3. The Reign of Nicolás Maduro Regime

3.2.4. Neoconservatism

3.2.5. Enter President Donald Trump a Political Dark Horse or Trojan Horse for Neoconservatism?

3.2.6. Determining the Legitimacy of the Juan Guaidó Regime Change

3.2.7. Legal Issues on American Intervention in Venezuela

3.2.7.1. Lack of Justification Based on Humanitarian Concerns

3.2.7.2. Lack of Justification for Attacking Venezuela on Grounds of Self-Defense

3.2.7.3. intermeddling with the Sovereignty of Venezuela and the Doctrine of Vicarious Liability

3.2.7.4. The Legitimacy of the Presidency of Nicolás Maduro from the international Perspective

3.2.7.5. Violation of the Permanent Sovereignty over Natural Resources of Venezuelan People

Conclusion

General Background

On 11 January 1961, President Dwight D. Eisenhower delivered an epic farewell address warning the world about the cataclysmic rise of the "Military-industrial Complex."1 He bemoaned how this unholy alliance triangulating among political, military and business interests posed an existential threat to geopolitical stability by fueling conflicts and "regime change" which is euphemism for coups.2 in retrospect, this statement was somehow ironical considering his stellar and decorated military career as five-star general who served as Supreme Commander of the Allied Expeditionary Force during the Second World War.3 No sooner had Eisenhower retired than his speech turn prophetic after western powers embarked on a ferocious and nefarious campaign of meaningless military interventions across the Global

' Eisenhower Warns U.S. of the Military-industrial Complex (Oct. 30, 2019), available at https://www. youtube.com/watch?v=8y06NSBBRtY.

2 Ann Scales & Laura Spitz, The Jurisprudence of the Military-Industrial Complex, 1(3) Seattle Journal of Social Justice 541, 542 (2002).

3 Charles J. Dunlap, The Military-Industrial Complex, 140(3) Daedalus 135, 137 (2011).

South and Eastern Europe under the guise of fighting communism and spreading liberal democracy.

Close to six decades later Eisenhower's prophecy is well portrayed in the political upheavals bedeviling Ukraine and the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela (hereinafter Venezuela). in Ukraine the "Euromaiden revolution" that was largely supported by NATO and EU led to the ultimate downfall and subsequent exile of President Viktor Yanukovych. Until his political downfall, Yanukovych, a close ally of President Vladimir Putin was considered the buffer zone against the volatile encroachment of EU and NATO into Russia's geopolitical sphere of influence. Consequent to this political turmoil, the country was embroiled in civil strife that led to the ultimate secession of the Crimea region which elected to join the Russian Federation.

Conversely, the political rise of Hugo Chávez Venezuela coincided with the frosty relationship between USA and Venezuela. The abrasive and populist leader aligned himself with the Cuban patriarch Fidel Castro in order to neuter America's dominance in the region. On the economic front, he denied American corporations profits by nationalizing the lucrative Venezuelan oil industry. Furthermore, he embarked on a campaign against imperialism across Latin America in order to counteract iron clout of American corporations. On the geopolitical front, he aligned himself with Russia, China, iran, iraq, Syria and Zimbabwe in order to challenge the American and Western Europe global dominance.4 After his death in March 2013 his loyal deputy and anointed successor Nicolás Maduro followed his footsteps by implementing Bolivarian and anti-American policies. This cavalier attitude led to the USA issuing economic sanctions an act which aggravated the economic turmoil that continues to plague the country.

Consequently, this conflict hit a peak after the election of President Donald Trump in 2016 who later appointed John Bolton as the National Security Advisor.5 During an interview on Fox News Bolton branded Venezuela the second limb of the "Troika of Tyranny" alongside Cuba and Nicaragua all of whom continue to threaten democracy in Latin America.6 This precarious situation was exacerbated after a failed drone attack on President Maduro in August 2018.7 Thereafter, Juan Guaidó, President of the National

4 Damon Coletta, Venezuelan Civil-Military Relations as a Coordinate System, 36(5) Armed Forces & Society 843, 844 (2010).

5 Mark Landler & Maggie Haberman, Trump Chooses Bolton for 3rd Security Adviser as Shake-Up Continues, The New York Times, 22 March 2018 (Oct. 30, 2019), available at https://www.nytimes.com/2018/03/22/ us/politics/hr-mcmaster-trump-bolton.html.

6 Julian Borger, Bolton Praises Bolsonaro While Declaring "Troika of Tyranny" in Latin America, The Guardian, 1 November 2018 (Oct. 30, 2019), available at https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2018/nov/01/ trump-admin-bolsonaro-praise-john-bolton-troika-tyranny-latin-america.

7 Christoph Koettl & Barbara Marcolini, A Closer Look at the Drone Attack on Maduro in Venezuela, The New York Times, 10 August 2018 (Oct. 30, 2019), available at https://www.nytimes.com/2018/08/10/ world/americas/venezuela-video-analysis.html.

Assembly ofVenezuela declared himself President ofVenezuela. This drastic declaration was supported by large swathes of western countries including western countries including USA, UK, Canada, France, Germany, Sweden, Denmark and Brazil.8 However, this regime change failed after Guaido interim presidency was nullified by the Supreme Tribunal of Justice (STJ) thereby reaffirming the Maduro presidency.

This political impasse prompted President Donald Trump to admit the use of force in removing President Maduro from power was still a "possible option."9 This was a shocking remark coming from a President who had campaigned on a platform of restructuring NATO and ending needless military campaigns that nearly bankrupted his country.10 Legally speaking, this statement raised the pertinent issue as to whether USA was justified to use force as against Venezuela in light of the United Nations Charter and the relevant principles of international customary law. On a more abstract level, i shall argue in the negative, since Venezuela has not demonstrated any form of military aggression towards the United States and its allies. Therefore, it goes without saying America has failed to satisfy the international legal threshold to invoke the use of force against Venezuela.

it later emerged American intervention was driven by ulterior motives after John Bolton confirmed the U.S. government was reaching out to various oil corporations intending to invest in Venezuela after the regime change.11 This appalling admission raised the legal dilemma as to whether the American strategic interest in Venezuelan energy sector violates the principle of permanent control of natural resources. in essence, this legal principle is inextricably connected to sovereignty and territorial integrity since it gives individual countries the absolute right to control and dispose their natural resources.12 in hindsight, it coincided during decolonization in order to give the countries the secure control of their resources from their former colonial masters.13

in this case if the U.S. led intervention is centered on securing controlling the oil reserves then it amounts to gross violation of the right of the Venezuelan people

8 Tom Phillips, Venezuela's Juan Guaidó Offers Nicolás Maduro Amnesty If He Goes Quietly, The Guardian, 25 January 2019 (Oct. 30, 2019), available at https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/jan/25/ venezuelas-juan-Guaidó-offers-nicolas-maduro-amnesty-if-he-goes-quietly.

9 Trump Administration Warns Military Action in Venezuela "Possible," VOA News, 1 May 2019 (Oct. 30, 2019), available at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kvjMtez0jq0.

10 Joyce P. Kaufman, The US Perspective on NATO Under Trump: Lessons of the Past and Prospects for the Future, 93(2) International Affairs 251 (2017).

11 W.J. Hennigan, Inside John Bolton's Month-Long P.R. Campaign Against Venezuela's Government, Time, 30 January 2019 (Oct. 30, 2019), available at https://time.com/5516920/inside-john-boltons-month-long-p-r-campaign-against-venezuelas-government/.

12 Endalew Lijalem Enyew, Application of the Right to Permanent Sovereignty over Natural Resources to Indigenous Peoples: Assessment of Current Legal Developments, 8 Artic Review on Law and Politics 222, 223 (2017).

13 Ikechi Mgbeoji, Beyond Rhetoric: State Sovereignty, Common Concern, and the Inapplicability of the Common Heritage Concept to Plant Genetic Resources, 16(4) Leiden Journal of International Law 821, 826 (2003).

to control their natural resources. in essence, if western countries that prop up illegitimate regimes to protect their economic interest in gross violation of the right of the Venezuelan people to control and dispose their natural resources.

This synopsis forms the centerpiece of this paper. it gives a critical analysis on the use of force within the context of international rule of law. i for one will argue the U.N. Charter alongside other international legal documents prohibits the use of force except for purposes of self-defense.14 Furthermore, i shall rely on the principal-agency theory to expound the connection between foreign interests and the opposition leaders who instigate illegitimate regime change in their home countries. Doubtless, the sovereign power to change government vests with the people of Ukraine and Venezuela and not the high powered political bureaucracy in Washington and Brussels. Therefore, it is the people who have the obligation to spearhead political change in accordance with the prevailing constitutional order.

in cementing this discussion, this paper shall rely on the jurisprudence of the international Court of Justice (iCJ) as a tool for mapping out the legal terrains on the use of force in international law.15 Going by the dominant legal order, it is fair to surmise the political changes in Ukraine and Venezuela are tainted with mischief, malice and mala fide due to the underlying foreign strategic interests rather than representing the welfare of the people.

Caveat, this being a legal paper and not a political opinion, should not be construed in any way, shape or form as a campaign to whip up support or win sympathy for Presidents Yanukovych and Maduro. A closer analysis of their political reign signifies multidimensional shortcomings ranging from political repression to endemic corruption and cronyism.16 For example the Chavez-Maduro hegemony has been assailed for promoting and incubating institutional and endemic corruption hence the term estado delincuente (criminal state).17 However, this administrative shortfall does not negate their legitimacy which can only be nullified by the electorate and not foreign intervention.

By and large, this paper is divided into four major parts. The first part will form the legal foundation of this paper. it gives a comprehensive legal analysis on the use of force and regime change in international law. in addition, it underscores a precise discussion of the principle of permanent control over natural resources in public international law. Furthermore, i shall elaborate on the agency theory as

14 Michael Wood, International Law and the Use of Force: What Happens in Practice?, 53 Indian Journal of International Law 345, 346 (2013).

15 Corinne Lewis, Don't Stop Now: The Development of the International Law Right to Use Force in Self-Defense, IV(3) Journal of International Law & Policy 3:1 (2007).

16 Taras Kuzio, Ukraine's Other War: The Rule of Law and Siloviky After the Euromaidan Revolution, 29(4) Journal of Slavic Military Studies 681, 682 (2016).

17 Margarita López Maya, Populism, 21st-Century Socialism and Corruption in Venezuela, 149(1) Thesis Eleven 67, 68 (2018).

the nexus between NATO and EU and the illegitimate leaders in foreign jurisdiction. The second part will espouse the political history of Ukraine and Venezuela. i for one will argue the ousting of Presidents Yanukovych and Maduro was illegitimate for controverting the relevant provisions of their respective constitutions. This portion shall give a concise study of neoconservatism as the modern day reincarnation of the Military-industrial Complex. indeed, a study by the American think tank Brookings institution established at the turn of the 21st century the Military-industrial Complex has undergone a fundamental shift in terms of form and structure.18 Therefore, it is prudent to study the nexus between neoconservatism and the aggressive use of force in contemporary international law. Finally, the last part shall contain the concluding remarks. For clarity purposes the word western powers as used in this article means NATO and EU.

1. Introduction

Territorial integrity and national sovereignty are the hallmarks of nation states within the precepts of public international law.19 Needless to say, these cardinal principles enable countries to exercise political control and autonomy without unnecessary interference by foreign and powerful entities. These legal doctrines originated from the Westphalian model of 1648 that acted as the foundation of international relations.20 However, after the Second World War these amorphous principles were codified into international law after the promulgation of the United Nations Charter.21

On the subject of the use of force in international law, the U.N. Charter stands on the principles of jus ad bellum (law on the use of force) and jus in bello (law on the prevention of war) as a means of maintaining international law and order.22 Firstly, Article 2(1) of the Charter recognizes one of the principles of U.N. is sovereign equality of all its Members.23 As Hans Kelsen rightly noted sovereign equality of states

18 Jason Tama, There's No App for That: Disrupting the Military-Industrial Complex, Center for 21st Century Security and intelligence - Brookings (July 2015) (Oct. 30, 2019), available at https://www.brookings. edu/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/No-app-for-that_final-7815.pdf.

19 Winston P. Nagan & Craig Hammer, The Changing Character of Sovereignty in International Law and International Relations, 43(1) Columbia Journal of Transnational Law 141, 142 (2004).

20 Harold Hongju Koh et al., Why Do Nations Obey International Law?, 106(8) Yale Law Journal 2599, 2659 (1997).

21 Bardo Fassbender, What's in a Name? The International Rule of Law and the United Nations Charter, 17(3) Chinese Journal of international Law 761, 767 (2018).

22 Oykuirmakkesen, The Notion of Armed Attack Under the UN Charter and the Notion of International Armed Conflict - Interrelated or Distinct?, LL.M. Paper, Geneva Academy of international Humanitarian Law and Human Rights (August 2014) (Oct. 30, 2019), available at http://www.prix-henry-dunant.org/ wp-content/uploads/2014_iRMAKKESEN_Paper.pdf.

23 Charter of the United Nations and Statute of the international Court of Justice (1945) (Oct. 30, 2019), available at https://treaties.un.org/doc/publication/ctc/uncharter.pdf.

is only subject to international legal order and not the legal regime of other states.24 The letter and spirit behind this overarching principle is to preserve the political autonomy of individual member states from intrusion by foreign and more powerful entities. This legal provision is further amplified by Article 2(4) of the Charter which states that:

All Members shall refrain in their international relations from the threat or use of force against the territorial integrity or political independence of any state, or in any other manner inconsistent with the Purposes of the United Nations.25

A cursory glance of this important clause brings out two essential legal issues. Firstly, the member states should limit the use of military force to defending territorial integrity or political independence of country.26 As Kamal Khan rightly observes the right to self-defense is defined by four major elements; who can exercise this right, as against whom, the subject matter being protected by the response, the method of response, instrument and degree applied in the response.27 Therefore, it is germane to consider these factors when examining the use of force in international law.

Secondly, the manner of enforcing this military power should conform to the legal threshold of the U.N. Charter.28 This position is amplified by Article 51 of the Charter which permits the collective use of force for self-defense against armed invasion of a member state.29 However, there is rider to this measure which must be approved by the Security Council in accordance with Chapter Vii of the Charter.30 in dissecting this provision one may argue member states may invoke individual or collective self-defense when responding to armed incursion against another member state.31

24 Hans Kelsen, The Principle of Sovereign Equality of States as a Basis for International Organization, 52(3) Yale Law Journal 207, 211 (1944).

25 Charter of the United Nations, supra note 23.

26 Oscar Schachter, Self-Defense and the Rule of Law, 83(2) American Journal of International Law 259, 260 (1989).

27 Kamal A. Khan, Use of Force and Human Rights Under International Law, 3(2) Athens Journal of Law 141 (2017).

28 David K. Linnan, Self-Defense, Necessity and U.N. Collective Security: United States and Other Views, 1 Duke Journal of Comparative & International Law 57, 69 (1991).

29 Charter of the United Nations, supra note 23.

30 James A. Green, The Article 51 Reporting Requirement for Self-Defense Actions, 55(3) Virginia Journal of International Law 563, 565 (2015).

31 Robert J. Delahunty, Paper Charter: Self-Defense and the Failure of the. United Nations Collective Security System, 56(3) Catholic University Law Review 871 (2007).

1.1. International Legal Instruments

1.1.1. Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR)

This document plays a critical role in the crystalizing of human rights within the context of customary international law.32 To paraphrase one of framers the former American First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt, the document was not a treaty foisted among member states but a declaration that would act as the common stand on global human rights.33 Article 21 of Declaration recognizes the right to express political opinion through elections.34 in addition, Article 21(3) states the will of the people shall form the legitimate authority of government through free and fair elections conducted through secret ballot. This crucial clause amplifies the position of sovereignty and territorial integrity in international law by affirming the legitimacy of any government emanates from the people and not foreign interests and intervention. in spite of this important provision, the Declaration is not obligatory in nature a fact which has hindered its universal implementation across the globe.35

1.1.2. International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR)

From the outset this document intended to simplify the civil and political dimensions of the UDHR. Broadly speaking, it remains one of the most progressive and futuristic legal documents on implementation of these rights on global level.36 Article 1 of the Covenant recognizes the right of the people to determine their political status.37 This pivotal provision expounds on the importance of the sovereign will of the people in plotting the political course of their country.38 By implication, this provision delegitimizes the controversial role of foreign powers in spurring regime changes in weaker states across Eastern Europe and Global South.

32 Hurst Hannum, The Status of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in National and International Law, 25(1) Georgia Journal of International and Comparative Law 287, 290 (1996).

33 Anya Luscombe, Eleanor Roosevelt: A Crusading Spirit to Move Human Rights Forward, 36(4) Netherlands Quarterly of Human Rights 241, 245 (2018).

34 Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) (Oct. 30, 2019), available at https://www.un.org/en/ udhrbook/pdf/udhr_booklet_en_web.pdf.

35 Jacob Dolinger, The Failure of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 47(2) University of Miami Inter-American Law Review 164, 183 (2016).

36 Beth Simmons, Civil Rights in International Law: Compliance with Aspects of the "International Bill of Rights," 16(2) Indiana Journal of Global Legal Studies 437 (2008).

37 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, adopted by the General Assembly of the United Nations on 19 December 1966 (Oct. 30, 2019), available at https://treaties.un.org/doc/publication/ unts/volume%20999/volume-999-i-14668-english.pdf.

38 Father Robert Araujo, Sovereignty, Human Rights, and Self-Determination: The Meaning of International Law, 24(5) Fordham International Law Journal 1477, 1478 (2005).

1.1.3. International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR)

This Covenant was promulgated as tool to crystallize socio-economic rights at the

international level. Within this context, sovereignty recognizes the inherent right of the people to control their socio-economic interests without any foreign influence. From the inception Article 1 expands the right to self-determination to include the freedom to pursue their economic, social and cultural development.39 Moreover, Article 1 (2) recognizes the inherent right to dispose their natural wealth and resources so long as the same does not violate any economic obligations in international law. A closer analysis of this clause raises two interesting arguments touching on the connection between socio-economic sovereignty and use of force in international law. Firstly, it affirms the unfettered right of the people to control their natural resources within the precepts of international cooperation and mutual benefits. Secondly, it prohibits foreign and powerful states from using force in order to expropriate natural resources from other states. in summary, it is cogent to argue a broad and purposive interpretation of the term "self-determination" in terms of the iCESCR includes the right of sovereign states to determine their socio-economic policies.40

1.1.4. Declaration on Principles oflnternational Law Concerning Friendly Relations and Co-Operation Among States in Accordance with the Charter of the United Nations

This important body of international law is basically an offshoot of the U.N. Charter with the specific objective promoting peaceful co-existence among member states.41 The first principle prohibits the use of force to threaten the territorial integrity and political independence of other member states or in any manner that controverts the letter and spirit of the U.N. Charter.42 it further defines a war of aggression to constitute a crime against the peace, for which there is responsibility under international law.

The third principle prohibits states using from threats or using force in order to violate existing international boundaries or resolve international disputes.43 Furthermore, it prohibits every member states from encouraging or organizing irregular forces including armed mercenaries in foreign territories. By the same token, member states are forbidden from organizing, instigating, assisting or participating in acts of civil

39 international Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (1966) (Oct. 30, 2019), available at https://treaties.un.org/doc/Treaties/1976/01/19760103%2009-57%20PM/Ch_iV_03.pdf.

40 Burak Cop & Dogan Eymirlioglu, The Right of Self-Determination in International Law Towards the 40th Anniversary of the Adoption of ICCPR and ICESCR, X(4) Perceptions - Journal of international Affairs 115, 116 (2005).

41 Brad R. Roth, Secessions, Coups and the International Rule of Law: Assessing the Decline of the Effective Control Doctrine, 11(2) Melbourne Journal of international Law 1, 3 (2010).

42 U.N. General Assembly, Declaration on Principles of international Law Concerning Friendly Relations and Co-Operation Among States in Accordance with the Charter of the United Nations, 24 October 1970, A/RES/2625(XXV).

43 Id.

strife or terrorist acts in foreign territories. it also attaches premium to negotiations as means of resolving international dispute under the banner of sovereignty and equality of the respective member states.

in summary, this document prohibits member states from interfering with the domestic affairs of other member states for whatever reasons be it political, economic, social or cultural.

1.1.5. General Assembly Resolution of Declaration on the Inadmissibility of Intervention in the Domestic Affairs of States and the Protection of their Independence and Sovereignty

This Resolution is equally instrumental role in defining the boundaries on the use of force in international law. Paragraph 1 expressly prohibits states from intervening in the internal and external affairs of any member states.44 Furthermore, paragraph 2 prohibits states from supporting any form of clandestine activities that is angled overthrowing of the regime of another state.45 According to paragraph 3 the use of force to deprive a people their national identity amounts to gross violation of their natural rights and the principle of non-intervention.46 Paragraph 5 recognizes the absolute right of states to pursue their political, social, economic and cultural system without meddling by other member states.47 Paragraph 6 recognizes the right to self-determination among all the member states.48 Finally paragraph 7 defines states to include individual or a group of states.49

1.1.6. Principle of Permanent Sovereignty over Natural Resources in International Law

This legal principle seeks to reconcile the doctrine of national sovereignty with

the right to control natural resources.50 it emanated during the mid-20th century to enable newly independent states to secure control of their natural resources from their former colonial masters and multinational corporations.51 Peculiarly, this

50

U.N. General Assembly, Declaration on the inadmissibility of intervention in the Domestic Affairs of States and the Protection of their independence and Sovereignty, 21 December 1965, A/RES/2131(XX).

Lillian Aponte Miranda, The Role of International Law in Intrastate Natural Resource Allocation: Sovereignty, Human Rights, and Peoples-Based Development, 45(3) Vanderbilt Journal of Transnational Law 785, 792 (2012).

Ricardo Pereira & Orla Gough, Permanent Sovereignty over Natural Resources in the 21st Century: Natural Resource Governance and the Right to Self-Determination of Indigenous Peoples Under International Law, 14(2) Melbourne Journal of International Law 451, 458 (2013).

44

45

46

47 Id.

48

49

futuristic doctrine is not contained in a single text, if anything, scattered across a spectrum of conventions to resolutions from the General Assembly of the United Nations. At the inception the framers of the organization did not envisage the resolutions as authoritative source of international law as signified by Article 38(1) of the iCJ Statute. However, over time these resolutions began to play a critical role in defining the legal norms on the global platform.52

Firstly, General Assembly Resolution 626 (Vii) of 1952 recommended the recognition of the inherent right of states to own and control their natural resources.53 This document was followed up by General Assembly Resolution 1314 (Xiii) of 1958 which recommended the establishment of a commission to explore the relationship between permanent control over natural resources and the right to self-determination.54

in addition, General Assembly Resolution 1803 (XVii) of 1962 which is known as "Permanent Sovereignty over Natural Resources" is germane to this discussion.55 According to Lorenzo Cotula this Resolution magnified the link between sovereignty and the right of nation states to control and dispose natural resources.56 This legal standpoint is echoed by Sangwani Patrick Ng'ambi who identified five major components of this principle as (1) the right to freely dispose their natural resources; (2) the right to explore and exploit natural resources freely; (3) the right to use natural resources for development; (4) the right to regulate foreign investment and (5) the right to settle disputes on the basis of natural law.57 if one is to adopt a holistic understanding of these five elements as proposed by Ng'ambi it is fair to assert this legal principle is well structured to protect the natural resources of weaker and underdeveloped states from exploitation by powerful foreign entities. This Resolution was later supported by Resolution 2158 (XXi) that affirmed the right to permanent sovereignty over natural resources as a means of economic development among the newly independent states.58 This was a strategic measure that was angled toward

52 Gregory J. Kerwin, The Role of United Nations General Assembly Resolutions in Determining Principles of International Law in United States Courts, 1983 Duke Law Journal 876 (1983).

53 U.N. General Assembly, Right to Exploit Freely Natural Wealth and Resources, 21 December 1952, A/RES/ 626(Vii), at 18, para. 1.

54 U.N. General Assembly, Recommendations Concerning international Respect for the Right of Peoples and Nations to Self-Determination, 12 December 1958, A/RES/1314(Xiii).

55 U.N. General Assembly, Permanent Sovereignty over Natural Resources, 14 December 1962, A/RES/ 1803(XVii).

56 Lorenzo Cotula, Reconsidering Sovereignty, Ownership and Consent in Natural Resource Contracts: From Concepts to Practice in European Yearbook of International Economic Law2018 143, 147 (M. Bungenberg et al. (eds.), Cham: Springer, 2019).

57 Sangwani Patrick Ng'ambi, Permanent Sovereignty over Natural Resources and the Sanctity of Contracts, from the Angle of Lucrum Cessans, 12(2) Loyola University Chicago international Law Review 153, 156 (2015).

58 U.N. General Assembly, Permanent Sovereignty over Natural Resources, 25 November 1966, A/RES/ 2158(XXi).

improving the socio-economic status of the nascent countries across the Global South and East.

Apart from the spectrum of general assembly resolutions this legal principle is recognized by other international legal instruments. First, is the Charter of Economic Rights and Duties of States (CERDS) which outlines the international legal principles on trade and development.59 in essence it intended to resolve the socio-economic tensions and disputes between the industrialized and underdeveloped countries.60 A plain reading of the Preamble indicates the overarching objective of this document is to establish a new international economic order based on equality, interdependence and promoting common interest.61 Chapter of the Charter affirms the political and economic relations of member states shall be governed by the principles of sovereignty, equality, non-intervention, non-aggression, peaceful coexistence and equal rights and self-determination of the people.62 Article 1 states every state has the sovereign power to elect the political and socio-economic system in accordance with the will of the people without outside influence, threats and interference.63 Article 2 confirms every state has the right to exercise full permanent control over its natural resources and economic activities.64 Article 5 stipulates the state has the right to associate in organization of primary commodity producers in order to develop their national economies and secure financing of their economies.65 Further to that, Article 7 outlines the primary obligation of the state to promote economic, social and cultural development of its people. Finally, Article 16 obligates all states to individually and collectively eliminate any form of economic imperialism and foreign occupation and aggression.66

Finally, the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development commonly referred to as"Earth Summit" also recognizes this legal principle.67 This principal objective behind this futuristic document was to implement the hard laws on economic development and environmental concern as a follow up to the Stockholm Declaration.68 More

U.N. General Assembly, Charter of Economic Rights and Duties of States, 6 November 1974, A/RES/ 3281(XXIX).

Joseph C. Vanzant, Charter on Economic Rights and Duties of States: A Solution to the Development Aid Problem?, 4(2) Georgia Journal of International and Comparative Law 441 (1974).

Charter of Economic Rights and Duties of States, supra note 59.

The Rio Declaration on Environment and Development (1992) (Oct. 30, 2019), available at http:// www.unesco.org/education/pdf/RIO_E.PDF.

David A. Wirth, The Rio Declaration on Environment and Development: Two Steps Forward and One Back, or Vice Versa, 29(3) Georgia Law Review 599, 601 (1995).

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specifically, principle two of the Rio Declaration recognizes the inherent right of states to exploit their resources in line with United Nations Charter and the relevant principles of international customary law.69 As Ng'ambi rightly notes this clause grants the states the right to oversee the economic activities of both domestic and foreign entities operating within their territories.70 in closing, it is fair to surmise there is an inextricable connection between the national sovereignty and the principle of permanent control over natural resources.

1.1.7. The Applicability of Vicarious Liability in Public International Law in hindsight, the entire premise of this paper is deeply anchored on the political and socio-economic sovereignty of Ukraine and Venezuela. Moreover, any legitimate regime change should be sponsored by the people in accordance with the relevant provisions of their Constitution. However, if the change is illegal and engineered by foreign factors then it creates a principal-agency relationship between the local usurpers and their foreign agitators who are vicariously liable for their actions. This agency theory is mostly applicable in the Anglo-American (common law) system where the principal is liable for the actions of the agent.71 in this regard, similar arguments apply to illegal interference with the political rights of the people through undemocratic regime change.

Secondly, the principal is held accountable for being the ultimate beneficiary for the actions and policies of the agents. indeed, this practice has partially taken root among corporations who are held liable for committing offences in foreign countries.72 For instance the Alien Tort Claims Act, permits litigants to lodge claims against American corporations in the USA.73 For offences committed in foreign jurisdictions in Sosa v. Alvarez-Machain the Supreme Court stated the required legal threshold is gross violation of a "norm of customary international law so well defined as to support the creation of a federal remedy."74 Therefore, if corporations who are not primary signatories to international legal instruments are criminally liable for intermeddling with the domestic affairs of other nations, then why nation states should be held to a different standard?

This legal concern is equally addressed by American Jurists Eric Posner and Alan Sykes who observe international legal instruments are analogous to contracts among

69 Wirth 1995, at 601.

70 Sangwani Patrick Ng'ambi, Reconciling Permanent Sovereignty over Natural Resources and Pacta Sunt Servanda, international Journal of Multi-Disciplinary Research 1, 5, 6 (2018).

71 Paula J. Dalley, A Theory of Agency Law, 72(3) University of Pittsburgh Law Review 495, 498 (2011).

72 Erin Stapp, Third-Party Liability for Violations of the Law of Nations: Apply International Law, the Law of the Situs, or Domestic Standards, 49(2) Santa Clara Law Review 495, 498 (2009).

73 The Judiciary Act of 1789 (ch. 20, 1 Stat. 73).

74 Sosa v. Alvarez-Machain, 542 U.S. 692, 736 (2005).

the nations.75 Subsequently, any element of breach should warrant legal sanctions and remedies. They further argue states are vicariously liable for the actions of their officials and proxies that threaten or interfere with the stability and security of the other member states. They cite the iCJ decisions of Nicaragua and Hostages cases where the USA and iran were held accountable for the actions of their proxies in foreign jurisdictions.

By the same token, this legal position is supported by the commentary of the international Law Commission on Responsibility of States for internationally Wrongful Acts.76 Article 1 recognizes the liability of nation states for breach of international liability. Under Article 2 a wrongful act or omission is one which constitutes breach of international obligation.77 More specifically, Article 3 states that a wrongful conduct is attributable to the state if the organ or if the perpetrator acted as an agent of the state. Article 4 defines wrongful conduct to include any action authorized by an organ of the central government or territorial authority. Moreover, Article 5 adopts an expansive definition by stipulating any act committed by a person though not an organ of the state but acting in that capacity shall be attributed to the authorizing state. Similarly, Article 6 extends these same broad standards to include the conduct of state organs.

Article 7 defines an act of the state under international law if the organ is empowered to operate on behalf of the state even if it exceeds its authority. Article 8 attributes an act under international law to the state if the organ operates under the command and control of the said state.78 This pivotal clause offers wide latitude for nations to be held accountable for the actions of their proxies who violate international law in foreign jurisdictions.

in that regard, Posner and Sykes cite the example of the Hostages case where the government of iran was held accountable for the actions of the radical students who seized the American Embassy in Tehran.79 it was argued the inflammatory remarks of Ayatollah Khomeini encouraged the students to "expand the attacks" against America. in addition, his ostensible reluctance to expel them from precincts of the Embassy largely contributed to the crisis.80 Noteworthy, these provisions are not

Eric A. Posner & Alan O. Sykes, An Economic Analysis of State and Individual Responsibility Under

International Law, 9(1) American Law and Economic Review 72, 100 (2007).

United Nations, Draft Articles on Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts, with Commentaries (2001) (Oct. 30, 2019), available at http://legal.un.org/ilc/texts/instruments/english/ commentaries/9_5_2001.pdf.

Phosphates in Morocco Case (Italy v. France) (1938) P.C.I.J., Ser. A/B, No. 74.

Posner & Sykes 2007, at 90.

Warren Christopher & Richard M. Mosk, The Iranian Hostage Crisis and the Iran-U.S. Claims Tribunal: Implications for International Dispute Resolution and Diplomacy, 7(2) Pepperdine Dispute Resolution Law Journal 155, 157 (2007).

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mandatory since they are more or less recommendations by the international Law Commission. That notwithstanding they play a critical determining the liability of states in public international law.

2. Jurisprudence on Sovereignty and Territorial Integrity

The iCJ as established under Article 1 of the iCJ Statute is the global court obligated to resolve disputes among the member states of the U.N.81 in addition, it has the mandate to interpret and offer advisory opinion on the matters emanating from the U.N. Charter.82 Most importantly, Article 38 outlines the sources of international law as international convention, customary international law, general principles of law among civilized nations, subject to Article 59 the judicial decisions and teachings of revered international legal scholars (opiniojuris). Historically speaking, the court has played a critical role in developing the jurisprudence and customary law on public international law.83

2.1. Nicaragua v. USA (Case Concerning Military and Paramilitary Activities in and Against Nicaragua)84

This by far is one of the most futuristic and landmark decisions of the court considering the fact the legal issues revolved around the geopolitical tensions of the Cold War.85 The gravamen of the dispute stemmed from the controversial activities of the contras in Nicaragua and neighboring El Salvador.86 The socialist leaning Sandinista government accused the USA of breaching international law by supporting this right wing paramilitary movement in overthrowing the government. They further argued America should be held accountable for the actions of the contras who unleashed grotesque waves of civilian terror characterized by massive displacement, torture, sexual violence and assassinations. The Nicaraguans further submitted America had violated Articles 2(4) and 51 of the U.N. Charter by supporting the contras through funds, arms, intelligence and military training yet there was no evidence Nicaragua posed a security threat to America.

81 Zakiyyu Muhammad & U.S. Jahun, An Examination of Article 38(1) ofthe Statute ofthe International Court of Justice 1945 as a Source of International Law, 7(8) International Journal of Scientific Research and Publications 427 (2017).

82 Id. Art. 36(2)(a) of the Statute.

83 Loretta Chan, The Dominance of the International Court of Justice in the Creation of Customary International Law, 6(1) Southampton Student Review 44 (2016).

84 Case Concerning Military and Paramilitary Activities in and Against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States of America) (1986) I.C.J. 14.

85 Keith Highet, Evidence, the Court, and the Nicaragua Case, 81(1) American Journal of International Law 1, 2 (1987).

86 Noreen M. Tama, Nicaragua v. United States: The Power of the International Court of Justice to Indicate Interim Measures in Political Disputes, 4(1) Dickinson Journal of International Law 65, 66 (1985).

From inception the USA challenged the jurisdiction of the court arguing the dispute should have been lodged before the Security Council in line with Article 24 of the U.N. Charter. Contrary to the accusations, the Americans argued the contras were instrumental in containing the threat posed as pose by the Sandinistas to Nicaragua and El Salvador. More specifically, Nicaragua was instrumental in channeling support to socialist rebels intending to overthrow several governments in Central America, namely El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras and Costa Rica. in addition USA invoked Article 36(2) of the iCJ Statute thereby contesting the jurisdiction of the court to determine matters touching on multiple treatises with El Salvador, Honduras and Costa Rica. in closing its submissions, the USA argued the doctrine of "collective self-defense" on behalf of El Salvador as member of the Organization of American States (OAS).87

On the issue of jurisdiction the court dismissed the preliminary objection on grounds that both the court and the Security Council had parallel mandate to determine the matter. in essence, Article 24 of the Charter used the word "primary" and not"exclusive" which meant nothing precluded the iCJ from adjudicating the dispute. in foresight, this was an ironical argument coming from the USA because during the Hostages case the iranians had raised a similar issue only for them to strenuously objected citing the court had unfettered jurisdiction to determine the matter.88

Upon dismissal of the objection the USA conveniently abandoned the proceedings in protest against alleged bias by the court. However, Nicaragua relied on Article 36 of the Statute which allowed the courts to institute ex parte proceedings and judgement against a party that failed to comply with the rules. in the final judgement the court agreed the USA had the right to opt out the various sections of the U.N. Charter as invoked by Nicaragua. Nonetheless, it was bound by the relevant principles of the customary international law because on various occasions it had expressed its support for the doctrine non-intervention. On the issue of collective self-defense the court reasoned the state invoking this defense must be the primary target of direct armed attack by a hostile nation which was not the case herein.

Thirdly, the American actions of supporting the contras violated the sovereignty and territorial integrity of Nicaragua. However, the illegal activities of the contrast could not be attributed to the USA since it was not in absolute control of their actions. in strict legal sense, this limb of the verdict was wanting since American support was essential in the spearheading the military campaigns by the contras. This position was confirmed by foreign policy of the President Ronald Reagan and Secretary of State George Shultz who were determined to eject the Sandinistas from power.89

87 Article 5(f) of the Charter of the Organization of the American States signed at Bogota, Colombia on 30 April 1948 (Oct. 30, 2019), available at https://treaties.un.org/doc/Publication/UNTS/Volume%20 119/volume-119-I-1509-English.pdf.

88 Theodore M. Lieverman, Law and Power: Some Reflections on Nicaragua, the United States, and the World Court, 10(2) Maryland Journal of International Law 295, 299 (1985).

89 Anthony D'Amato, Nicaragua and International Law: The "Academic" and the "Real", 79(3) American Journal of International Law 557, 559 (1995).

As Carlos Bernheim notes, by offering military support to the contras the United States was waging a "covert" war against Nicaragua and by extension interfering with the domestic affairs.90 inasmuch as the U.S. had no control over the contras it was foreseeable their actions might have caused undue harm and destruction among innocent civilians in Nicaragua. in spite of the ideological division, this decision is important in highlighting how interference by foreign countries through domestic proxies poses a serious threat to national sovereignty and territorial integrity.

2.2. USA v. Iran (Case Concerning United States Diplomatic and Consular Staff in Tehran)9

This case was essentially the geopolitical permutation of the frosty relationship between USA and iran after the islamic revolution of 1979 that ended the autocracy of its strongest ally in the region Mohammad Reza Shah.92 This dispute began after a group of belligerent university students seized the U.S. Embassy in Tehran and took 66 Americans hostage.93 The USA alleged the students were acting under the blessings and control of the Supreme leader Ayatollah Khomeini who wanted to reignite the fading euphoria of the once vibrant revolution. in further response, the USA imposed economic sanctions and froze foreign iranian assets worth billions of dollars.94 However, the parties agreed to settle the economic dispute in a forum arbitrated by Algeria which was later known as Algiers Accords of 19 January 1981.95

However, pertaining to the diplomatic and political standoff the USA opted to file a suit against iran for breaching the U.N. Charter and the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations. Subsequently, the iCJ found iran liable for the actions of the students who were "agents" acting under the control and for the ultimate benefit of the regime. This decision underscored the vicarious culpability of member states that infringe upon the sovereignty and democratic integrity of other member states. in

90 Carlos Tunnermann Bernheim, United States Armed Intervention in Nicaragua and Article 2(4) of the United Nations Charter, 11(1) Yale Journal of international Law 104 (1985).

91 Case Concerning United States Diplomatic and Consular Staff in Tehran (United States of America v. Iran) (1980) i.CJ. 3.

92 Richard W. Cottam, Human Rights in Iran Under the Shah, 12(1) Case Western Reserve Journal of international Law 121, 122 (1980).

93 Steven R. Swanson, Iran-U.S. Claims Tribunal: A Policy Analysis of the Expropriation Cases, 18(2) Case Western Reserve Journal of international Law 307 (1986).

94 Robert M. McGreevey, The Iranian Crisis and U.S. Law, 2(2) Northwestern Journal of international Law & Business 384, 387 (1980).

95 iran-U.S. Claims Trib. Rep. 3 (1981-82), 20 i.L.M. 223 (1981). These documents include: The Declaration of the Government of the Democratic and Popular Republic of Algeria Relating to the Commitments Made by iran and the United States, id. at 5, 20 i.L.M. at 224; Undertakings of the Government of iran and the United States, id. at 7, 20 i.L.M. at 229; The Declaration of the Government of the Democratic and Popular Republic of Algeria Concerning the Settlement of Claims by iran and the United States, id. at 9, 20 i.L.M. at 230; and the Escrow Agreement, id. at 12, 20 i.L.M. at 234. See Swanson 1986, at 307-308.

foresight, this decision was instrumental in addressing violent protests that threaten the integrity and sovereignty of other member states.

2.3. Iran v. USA (Case Concerning Oil Platforms)96

This case granted the court the perfect opportunity to expound the legal principles on the use of force and self-defense under international law. The genesis of this suit began when the U.S. Navy launched two missile attacks that destroyed iranian oil platforms and production complexes along the Gulf of Persia. inasmuch as the American government conceded responsibility it defended the attack on grounds of self-defense after iran had attacked its warship known as Sea Isle City which has berthed at the Harbor of Kuwaiti. in addition, the USA accused iran of launching a mine that struck its warship SamuelB. Robertson while navigating along international waters off the coast of Bahrain.

The court held that the right to self-defense presumes an armed attack against the state exercising that right. This means the burden of proof lies with the state invoking this right in response to the aggressor to demonstrate it was responding to an armed attack from a hostile nation. in this case there was "inconclusive evidence" that iran was responsible for the attacks against the American vessels. Even if one assumed that iran was responsible for the attack, it did not satisfy the legal threshold necessity and proportionality of an armed attack as envisaged by the court in the Nicaragua decision. Nonetheless, due to the prevailing economic sanctions there was no commercial relationship between the two countries hence counterclaim against the USA for the economic losses incurred by iran was summarily dismissed. Consequent to Nicaragua v. USA, this decision was instrumental in outlining the parameters on the use of force in international law.

2.4. Advisory Opinion on the Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons97

This matter was referred by the Security Council to the court for advisory opinion.98 The legal issue was whether the use of nuclear weapons was permissible under international law. it was held that the use of such weapons is permissible within the reasonable limits and requirements of Article 51 of the U.N. Charter. However, this limited use should be defined by two major principles. First is the need to distinguish between combatant and civilian targets. Secondly, is the need to avoid unnecessary suffering of combatants even if such threats or weapons were used on military targets. This decision expounded on the collective role of the Security Council in monitoring the use of force in international law.

96 Case Concerning Oil Platforms (Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of America) (2003) i.CJ. 161.

97 Advisory Opinion on the Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons (1996) i.C.J. 226.

98 U.N. General Assembly Resolution 49/75K adopted on 15 December 1994.

2.5. Yugoslavia v. NATO (Case Concerning Legality of Use of Force in International Law)"

This matter comprised of a series of ten cases as filed by Yugoslavia against individual member states of NATO after they launched a string of military airstrikes in Kosovo under the banner of "Operation Allied Forces." The applicant argued the court had jurisdiction to determine the dispute under Article iX of the Convention on Prevention and Punishment of Genocide, 1948 and Article 36(2) of the iCJ Statute. in addition, it filed an interlocutory application requesting for preliminary stay of the airstrikes. in that regard, the legal issue was whether under international law NATO was justified to use force against Yugoslavia. in response, each of the individual member states of NATO filed a counter memorial seeking to dismiss the suit since the applicant lacked the legal standing to file the suit. They argued the applicant Federal Republic ofYugoslavia which comprised of Serbia and Montenegro had never applied for U.N. Membership in accordance with the Article 35 of the U.N. Charter.

in addition, the United States and Spain raised preliminary objections that the court lacked jurisdiction in light of the reservation to clause iX of the Genocide Convention. The court upheld the objection since the issue of jurisdiction was optional and proceeded to expunge the cases from the series. During the substantive hearing of the main suit the court expressed deep concerns about the humanitarian tragedy in the region coupled with the fact that the matter raises serious legal issues. The court in its side note advised both parties to act within the conformity of the U.N. Charter and other rules of international law. However, the court stated it lacked prima facie jurisdiction over the dispute since the applicant was not a member of the U.N. at the time of filing of the memorial in line with Article 35 of the U.N. Charter and proceeded to dismiss the memorial.

2.6. Advisory Opinion Concerning Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory100

This matter was referred to the iCJ by the U.N. General Assembly under Article 65 of the U.N. Charter. The epicenter of this dispute revolved around the decision by the israeli government to erect a "security fence" around Palestinian occupied territories stretching from the Gaza Strip, West Bank all the way to East Jerusalem. The legal issue was whether israel had breached the Hague Convention Regulations and Geneva Conventions together with the relevant principles of international customary role.

The court ruled in the affirmative holding that the"security fence" was a permanent structure that infringed upon the freedom of movement of the Palestinian people under Article 12 of the iCCPR.

99 Case Concerning Legality of Use of Force (Yugoslavia v. United States of America) (1996) i.CJ. 916.

100 Advisory Opinion Concerning Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory (2004) i.CJ. 136.

it was held israel had breached the Hague and Geneva Conventions together with the relevant as aspects of customary international law despite not being a signatory to the said treatise.101 in essence, the court affirmed the holding of the Corfu Channel case by holding that non signatory states can be held liable for breaching international customary law. Finally, the court held that israel activities in the Palestinian territory fell well within the precepts of Article 4 of the Fourth Geneva Convention which protects civilian during civil wars. This clause defined the protected persons protected by convention as those within a conflict/occupied zone or in the control of an occupying foreign party. in this instance the court adopted an expansive and liberal interpretation of this clause since the Palestine being a territory and not a signatory to the convention.

2.7. Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Uganda (Case Concerning Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo)'02

The legal issue was whether Uganda had breached the sovereignty of the DRC by deploying its army inside the eastern exterior border of DRC. in retrospect, Uganda had played a key role in arming the unified rebel movement Alliance of Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Congo-Zaire (AFDL or ADFLC) led by Laurent Kabila who ultimately overthrew the long term despot Mobutu Sese Seko in 1997. Upon ascending to power President Kabila issued an executive order demanding Rwanda and"any other foreign states" to withdraw all their troops stationed in the Eastern town of Goma.

However, Uganda defied the order and deployed its troops to the town of Kitona then controlled by the MLC Rebel Movement. The DRC argued Uganda offered these insurgents military and financial support in order to destabilize the Kabila regime. This sudden change of loyalty prompted President Kabila to solicit for support from his southern allies Angola, Namibia and Zimbabwe who in turn launched a swift onslaught that quelled the rebellion. in 2002 the parties to the conflict agreed to a ceasefire prompting Uganda to recall all its troops stationed in the country.103 Nonetheless, the Congolese government accused Uganda of leaving behind "a complex network of warlords" who plundered and destabilized the country. in essence, DRC argued Uganda's support amounted to belligerent occupation in flippant disregard of Articles 2(4) and 51 of the U.N. Charter.

in a resounding response, Uganda accused the DRC of infringing upon its sovereignty after platoon of its forces stormed its Embassy in Kinshasa, harassed its staff and confiscated their belongings. in that regard Uganda invoked a spectrum

101 Jay Butler, Responsibility for Regime Change, 114(3) Columbia Law Review 503, 519 (2014).

102 Case Concerning Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo (Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Uganda) (2005) I.C.J. 158.

103 Inter-Congolese Political Negotiations: The Final Act (Oct. 30, 2019), available at https://peacemaker. un.org/sites/peacemaker.un.org/files/CD_030402_SunCityAgreement.pdf.

of provisions of the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations of 1961. Finally, Uganda submitted it was not bound by the executive order executive since it does not expressly demand its troops to withdraw from the country.

Ultimately, the court concurred with the applicants' case that Ugandan activities infringed upon the sovereignty of the DRC after Kabila accused Uganda of invading the country. in addition, Uganda had breached the scope of invitation since it acted outside the mutual understanding of both parties. Thirdly the phrase "any other country" as captured in the executive order included Ugandan troops. However, the counterclaim was dismissed for want of sufficient evidence and in any event a party cannot invoke Article 51 after launching attacks outside the scope of self-defense. This by far remains one of the most influential decisions on the territorial integrity as pronounced by the court.

3. Democracy in Ukraine and Venezuela

3.1. Democracy in Ukraine

3.1.1. History of Ukraine

Ukraine by virtue of its strategic location has always been the matrix of geopolitical interest and competition in Eastern Europe. Geographically speaking, it borders Russia to East, Belarus to the North, Poland, Slovakia and Hungary jointly share its western borders and to the South lies Romania, Moldova and the Black Sea. Since time immemorial, it has often played second fiddle to Russia considering its long history as part of the Russian Empire and later the Soviet Union.104

3.1.2. Post-Soviet Era from 1992-2004

After the collapse of the Soviet Union, the Supreme Council of the Communist Party of Ukraine voted for independence which was affirmed by parliament in 1991.105 This wind of political change was fermented by the promulgation of the independent Constitution in 1992. Chapter iV established the Supreme Rada as the unicameral legislative organ alongside a split executive comprising of the Presidency and Prime Minister.106 Furthermore, Chapter V established the Office of the President as the Chief Executive, Head of State and Commander-in-Chief of the Military. Conversely, the Prime Minister being a presidential appointee was designated to supervise and coordinate government affairs.107 Furthermore, it provided for further checks and balances by establishing an independent judiciary together with a comprehensive

104 Julia Koch, The Efficacy and Impact of Interim Measures: Ukraine's Inter-State Application Against Russia, 39(1) Boston College International and Comparative Law Review 163, 166 (2016).

105 Jordan Gans-Morse, Searching for Transitologists: Contemporary Theories of Post-Communist Transitions and the Myth of a Dominant Paradigm, 20(4) Post-Soviet Affairs 320 (2013).

106 Id.

107 Id. Ch. 6.

Bill of Rights.108 in light of this constitutional change, there was profound optimism the country would become the beacon of democracy, rule of law and human rights contrary to the dark past of communist authoritarianism.

However, this optimism for political change turned ominous after the country descended into a cycle of constitutional crises that pitted the presidency versus the parliament (Verkhovna Rada).109 in addition, there was regional competition that threated the political stability of the country. The western region is mostly dominated by Ukrainians while the Eastern region of Crimea and Donbass comprises of ethnically Russians.110 These cultural differences flared into separatist movement after Crimea threatened to secede but thereafter opted to remain after a referendum in 1992.

in 1996 the country passed constitutional amendment that granted the President the bulk of executive power to oversee the Premiership, Cabinet and regional governors (oblast). in the interest of maintaining relative checks and balances the legislature and judiciary maintained their independence. in 2000 then President Leonid Kuchma sponsored a constitutional amendment to split the legislature into two chambers. Despite the wide public support, the mission failed after the legislators opposed this change for fear it would neuter their powers to check the legislature.

3.1.3. The Era Orange Revolution and the Reign of Viktor Yushchenko

in 2005 President Kuchma retired leaving behind a bitter and divisive electoral contest that pitted his two former Prime Ministers Viktor Yanukovych and Viktor Yushchenko. Yanukovych the incumbent Premier was considered the anointed successor though moderate was perceived to lean towards the Russian and widely popular in Eastern regions of Crimea and Donbass. On the other hand, Yanukovych the perceived face of the opposition appeared more liberal and western leaning was the candidate of choice on western Ukraine.111 in the first round of elections, Yanukovych was declared the winner after garnering 51.4% of the votes against Yushchenko's 48%. This surprising electoral results triggered allegations of massive electoral fraud across the country considering the latter's widespread popularity. in turn, this state of political disillusionment, triggered recurrent waves of protests and riots by pro-Yushchenko supporters which were later dubbed the "Orange revolution."112 Conversely, the voters

108 Gans-Morse 2013, Chs. 8 and 2 respectively.

109 Matthew Rojansky & Mykhailo Minakov, Kennan Cable No. 30: Democracy in Ukraine: Are We There Yet?, Wilson Center, 30 January 2018 (Oct. 30, 2019), available at https://www.wilsoncenter.org/ publication/kennan-cable-no-30-democracy-ukraine-are-we-there-yet.

110 Cory Welt, Ukraine: Background and U.S. Policy, Congressional Research Service, 1 November 2017 (Oct. 30, 2019), available at https://www.hsdl.org/?abstract&did=805585.

111 Thomas Sedelius & Sten Berglund, Towards Presidential Rule in Ukraine: Hybrid Regime Dynamics Under Semi-Presidentialism, 5(1) Baltic Journal of Law and Politics 20, 30 (2012).

112 David Lane, The Orange Revolution: "People's Revolution"or Revolutionary Coup?, 10(4) British Journal of Politics and International Relations 525 (2008).

in Yanukovych's native region of Crimea and Donbass dismissed the allegations of electoral fraud citing his popularity.113 Ultimately, Yushchenko successfully challenged the results at the Constitutional Court and the Electoral body held a re-run election which was easily won by Yushchenko.

After his election President Yushschenko appointed Yulia Tymoshenko as the Prime Minister. Doubtless, Tymoshenko was the undisputed rising star in the Ukrainian politics considering her age and gender coupled with her unblemished political past. However, this political union turned acrimonious when Yushschenko accused her of corruption and abuse of office after she oversaw the signing of the oil and gas deal with Russia in 2009. in his view, Tymoshenko was responsible for getting Ukraine a raw deal after granting Russian absolute control of the energy sector. This accusation and counteraccusation led to the ultimate dismissal, indictment and trial of Tymoshenko for corruption and abuse of office. This indictment which was widely considered as a political mock trial especially after she had expressed her interest in contesting the presidency.114 in addition, she was the sacrificial lamb since Europe had prevailed upon Ukraine to enter into the agreement after Russia had cut off gas supplies during the biting winter of January 2009.

in some sense, Yushchenko and Tymoshenko were at cross-purposes from the onset in terms of policy and political ideology. This inherent tension contributed to their ultimate failure to engineer serious radical change in governance.115 More specifically, Yushchenko was a conservative who wanted to institute political change without changing the inherent face of the country. in contradiction, Tymoshenko advocated for sweeping reforms committed to dismantling the oligarchy and the vicious cycle of corruption and cronyism. However, the constant infighting among the west leaning orange luminaries opened the loophole for the perennial dark horse Viktor Yanukovych to stage a political comeback and win the Presidential election in 2010. As part of his political strategy, he managed to convince the Supreme Court to reinstate considerable power in the presidency.116

3.1.4. Ukraine, Russia and the European Union Under the Reign of Viktor Yanukovych

in 2008 the EU promulgated the Deep and Comprehensive Free Trade Agreements (DCFTA) as platform to expand its membership to neighboring countries including

113 Ararat Osipian & Alexandr Osipian, Why Donbass Votes for Yanukovych: Confronting the Ukrainian Orange Revolution, 14(4) Demokratizatsiya: The Journal of Post-Soviet Democratization 495 (2006).

114 Oleksandr Zadorozhnii, Political Prosecutions in Ukraine: The Case of Yulia Tymoshenko, 45(2) Hofstra Law Review 479 (2016).

115 Taras Kuzio, Political Culture and Democracy: Ukraine as an Immobile State, 25(1) East European Politics and Societies 88, 92 (2011).

116 Taras Kuzio, Viktor Yanukovych's First 100 Days: Back to the Past, but What's the Rush?, 18(3) Demokratiza-tsiya 208 (2010).

Ukraine. The EU was optimistic this treaty would spur economic growth by harmonizing the legal and economic framework across the region.117

This journey began after the Association Agreement (AA) which provided that Ukraine should join the World Trade Organization as a precursor to joining the DCFTA.118 However, President Yanukovych elected to forestall the signing of the agreement pending further discussions with Russia on the security and economic ties.119 This decision irked the Europhile Ukrainians who led protests known as the "Euromaidan riots" that culminated into his downfall and subsequent exile to Russia. After Yanukovych was deposed the acting President Oleksandr Turchynov signed the agreement into effect.120

Consequent to this political change, the Eastern region of Crimea held a referendum that garnered 97% vote to join the Russian Federation.121 This controversial move was widely criticized by western countries as an act of aggression and annexation of Ukraine.122 However, a closer analysis of this scenario nullifies the brash generalizations and false moral equivalences besetting this matter. Just like Kosovars, the Crimeans who are ethnically Russians exercised their political right to self-determination and voted to join the Russian Federation.123 in addition, this legality of this process was supported by the regional legislature of Crimea voted in favor of holding a referendum on this subject matter.124 That notwithstanding this issue remains one of the most controversial subjects in contemporary international law.125

3.1.5. Ukraine, Russia and NATO

Similarly, Ukraine is the locus of the new Cold War considering its proximity to Russia and Western Europe. in hindsight, the end of the Cold war resulted in the

117 Milan Vosta et al., Ukraine-EU Deep and Comprehensive Free Trade Area as Part of Eastern Partnership Initiative, 9(3) Journal of International Studies 21, 23 (2015).

118 Association Agreement between the European Union and its Member States, of the one part, and Ukraine, of the other part (Oct. 30, 2019), available at https://trade.ec.europa.eu/doclib/docs/2015/ november/tradoc_155103.pdf.

119 Derek Fraser, President Yanukovych's Policies and Tendencies, Centre for Global Studies, University of Victoria (May 2010) (Oct. 30, 2019), available at https://www.uvic.ca/research/centres/globalstudies/ assets/docs/publications/President-Yanukovych.pdf.

120 Tuuli Varsa, Ukraine and the European Union, 11 United Europe 37 (2017).

121 Koch 2015, at 171.

122 Oleksandr Merezhko, Crimea's Annexation by Russia - Contradictions of the New Russian Doctrine of International Law, 75 ZaöRV 157, 158 (2015).

123 John A. Burke & Svetlana Panina-Burke, Eastern and Southern Ukraine's Right to Secede and Join the Russian Federation, 3(1) Russian Law Journal 33, 35 (2015).

124 Juergen Bering, The Prohibition on Annexation: Lessons from Crimea, 49(3) New York University Journal of I nternational Law and Politics 747, 750 (2017).

125 Robin Geiß, Russia's Annexation of Crimea: The Mills of International Law Grind Slowly but They Do Grind, 91(1) International Law Studies 425, 445 (2015).

warm relationship between Presidents Bill Clinton and Boris Yeltsin.126 Nonetheless, this rapprochement began to deteriorate in 1999 after NATO encroached into Russian sphere of influence after engulfing Poland, Hungary and Czech Republic.127 in 2004 the second wave of admissions extended to the Baltic regions by granting membership to Lithuania, Estonia, Latvia, Slovenia, Bulgaria and Romania much to the dissatisfaction of Moscow.

The 2008 Summit in Bucharest, Romania oversaw the passing of the resolution to admit Georgia and Ukraine thereby extending NATO's footprint right outside Russia's doorstep.128 This precarious situation permeated into the domestic politics of Ukraine that led to the ultimate division in 2014 after secession of Crimea. in spite of these challenges, NATO remains adamant on its mission to protect weaker countries from the military threat from Russian incursion. However, this objective is blotted with gross inaccuracies considering the fact that Russia lacks the military and financial muscle to combat USA let alone NATO.129 The latest statistics from the Peter G. Peterson Foundation indicates that in 2018 military spending by USA was a staggering $610 billion compared to Russia's $55 billion.130 Despite this glaring disparity, Ukraine remains the centerpiece of the geopolitical contest between the two sides.

3.1.6. Legal Issues Surrounding the Ouster of Viktor Yanukovych

3.1.6.1. The Unconstitutionality of the Ousting of President Yanukovych

According to the Constitution of Ukraine sovereign power vests upon the people of Ukraine. This principle is enunciated in Article 46 which states that the expression of the will of the people is exercised through election, referendum and other forms of direct democracy. in terms of the presidency, Article 85 grants the Rada (legislature) the authority to determine the timelines of elections, institute impeachment proceedings in accordance with Article 111 and exercising parliamentary control within the limits of the Constitution.

Article 103 provides the President shall be elected by the people for a five year term on the basis of universal, equal and direct suffrage by secret ballot.131 Furthermore,

126 Padma Desai, Russian Retrospectives on Reforms from Yeltsin to Putin, 19(1) Journal of Economics Perspectives 87, 94 (2005).

127 Zoltan Barany, Stretching the Umbrella: NATO's Eastern Expansion, 8(2) European View 231, 235 (2009).

128 John J. Mearsheimer, Why the Ukraine Crisis Is the West's Fault: The Liberal Delusions That Provoked Putin, 93(5) Foreign Affairs 1 (2014).

129 Richard Sokolsky, The New NATO-Russia Military Balance: Implications for European Security, Carnegie Endowment for international Peace, 13 March 2017 (Oct. 30, 2019), available at https://carnegieendowment. org/2017/03/13/new-nato-russia-military-balance-implications-for-european-security-pub-68222.

130 The United States Spends More on Defense Than the Next Seven Countries Combined, Peter G. Peterson Foundation, 7 May 2018 (Oct. 30, 2019), available at https://www.pgpf.org/chart-archive/0053_ defense-comparison.

131 Constitution of Ukraine, adopted at the Fifth Session of the Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine on 28 June 1996 (Oct. 30, 2019), available at https://www.wipo.int/edocs/lexdocs/laws/en/ua/ua013en.pdf.

Article 103(3) provides for a limit of two terms.132 Article 108 provides the outgoing President shall exercise power until the assumption of offices by the newly elected President.133 in addition, the presidential term may be terminated before completion on grounds of; resignation, incapacitation, impeachment and death.

Under Article 109 the resignation shall enter into force once the President delivers his personal resignation speech upon meeting with the Rada.134 Article 111 outlines the procedure of impeaching the President on grounds of committing an offence or treason. The first step is whipping up majority support of at least 75% of the Rada.135 Thereafter, it will empanel a special temporary commission comprising of a special prosecutor and investigators to investigate the allegations against the President. Upon completion of the investigation the commission will prepare and present a conclusive report at a meeting with the Rada. Thereafter, the recommendations will only be adopted and implemented upon receiving at least two thirds of the Rada.

Consequently, if the Rada votes to impeach the President then said motion requires support of at least 75% of the constitutional membership to pass. Apart from this super majority vote, the motion will require the consideration and approval of the Supreme Court. Finally Article 112 outlines if the presidency is prematurely terminated according to Articles 108, 109, 110 and 111 then the powers shall be temporarily exercised by the Prime Minister.136

Against the backdrop of the foregoing the legal provisions it is evident the ouster of President Yanukovych was unconstitutional and a breach of the sovereign will of the Ukrainian people. More specifically, Article 111 of the Ukrainian Constitution stipulates that the motion to impeach should be supported by at least 75% of the members of the Rada.137 Nonetheless, the vote against Yanukovych failed to satisfy this legal threshold since it was supported by 328 out of the 450 members which was representative of approximately 72%.

Secondly, the motion was procedurally flawed since parliament never empanelled a special commission to investigate the whether his conduct breached the Constitution. Thirdly, the process was mired with substantive irregularities since the motion was never subjected to the opinion of the Constitutional Court in accordance with Article 111 of the Constitution. Consequently, it fair to surmise the successive regime of President Oleksandr Turchynov was illegal and illegitimate ab initio since it was composed in flippant disregard of the Constitution. in that regard,

132 Constitution of Ukraine, supra note 131.

133 Id.

134 Id.

135 Id.

136 Id.

137 Id.

the regime lacked the legal mandate to negotiate on behalf of the Ukrainian people. This concern resonates with the views of Thomas who rightly argues legitimacy comprises of procedure, substance and outcomes.138

3.1.6.2. illegality of the Ousting of President Yanukovych from Office

Firstly, the fact that Crimea in exercise of the right to self-determination voted to secede from Ukraine indicates the interim government lacked the legitimate control of the whole country. More specifically, the legitimacy of any political regime can be classified into internal legitimacy and external legitimacy. internal legitimacy occurs when the subject recognizes the government while external legitimacy entails recognition by other states and international organizations.139 in hindsight, President Yanukovych was duly recognized as the elected leader of Ukraine by both the people and foreign states and organizations including the USA, Russia and the European Union. Therefore, his removal should have conformed to the relevant provisions of the Constitution a fact which delegitimizes the successive government of President Yushchenko and any subsequent agreement it purported to endorse on behalf of the Ukrainian people. The long and short of this argument is that the validity of any international agreement is determined by the legitimacy of the government in question.140

in the same vein, it is imperative to appreciate the role and influence of the foreign elements in effecting the regime change in Ukraine. This position is well enunciated by Matthew Emery in his insightful paper "Ukraine: Analyzing the Revolution and NATO Action in Light of the U.N. Charter and Nicaragua." He notes the presence of NATO troops and arming of Ukraine against Russia amounted to breach of sovereignty under public international law. More specifically, since Ukraine is not a member of NATO it was therefore erroneous to invoke collective defense under Article 5 of the Agreement.141 This legal dilemma fits neatly with the decision of Nicaragua v. USA since the NATO exercised considerable control over the anti Yanukovych factions hence it should have foreseen the possible consequences of its actions in using force to depose a duly elected president.

Secondly, in the Nicaragua decision the USA was assailed for attempting to bring down the legitimate government led by the Sandinistas. Therefore, if one adopts this

138 C.A. Thomas, The Concept of Legitimacy and International Law, LSE Law, Society and Economy Working Papers 12/2013 (Oct. 30, 2019), available at http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/51746/1/__libfile_repository_Content_ Law%2C%20society%20and%20economics%20working%20papers_2013_WPS2013-12_Thomas.pdf.

139 Jean d'Aspremont, Legitimacy of Governments in the Age of Democracy, 38(4) New York University Journal of International Law and Politics 877 (2006).

140 Gerald T. McLaughlin & Lud wik A. Teklaff, The Iranian Hostage Agreements: A Legal Analysis, 4(2) Fordham International Law Journal 223 (1980-81).

141 Matthew Emery, Ukraine: Analyzing the Revolution and NATO Action in Light of the U.N. Charter and Nicaragua, 30(3) Emory International Law Review 433 (2016).

legal reasoning and argues inversely it would be illegal to funnel military support to prop up and defend an illegitimate government. Within the context of Ukraine, the interim government of President Oleksandr Turchynov was downright illegitimate for failing to satisfy the prescribed constitutional threshold. Nonetheless, NATO offered military support to this illegitimate government as a defensive measure against the resurgence of the President Yanukovych and the Russian support. it is therefore fair to argue NATO's activities in Ukraine violated Article 2(4) and 51 of the U.N. Charter together with the relevant principles of customary law including the holding of Nicaragua decision.

Thirdly, the decision of DRC v. Uganda is applicable in this case since the NATO support for the anti-Yanukovych forces amounted to belligerent occupation. This is because NATO failed to secure the official invitation from the President Yanukovych who was the legitimate leader of the Ukraine.

Admittedly, this argument is overtaken by events considering the political developments that led to the election of the comedian Volodymyr Zelensky as President. Nonetheless, considering the long term implications of these actions on the rule of law and sovereignty of Ukraine, it is prudent to address this concern to avoid similar trend in future.

3.2. Venezuela

3.2.1. Background Study

The political dynamics of Venezuela have often been defined by class disparity between the elites and massive poor. This deplorable situation was exacerbated after the Spanish conquest which resulted in the disproportionate allocation of wealth in favor of affluent landowners while marginalizing the majority native population. However, the oil boom in the mid-20th century triggered a diametrical shift in the political power which fell in the hands of the urban bourgeoisie.142

Apart from class, the dynamics of politics in Venezuela is defined by race which remains a thorny and volatile issue in the social fabric. in essence, the Spanish elites have always dominated the politics much to the detriment and expense of the Afro-Venezuelans and the indigenous groups.143 Thirdly, just like any oil dependent global south country Venezuela is beset with corruption, cronyism, socio-economic inequality and shrinking democratic space.144

By and large, Venezuela's transition to democracy began in 1958 after the overthrow of the brutal regime of Marcos Pérez Jiménez.145 This political change resulted in

142 Terry L. Karl, Dilemmas of Democratization in Latin America, 23(1) Comparative Politics 1 (1990).

143 Jesús M. Herrera Salas, Ethnicity and Revolution: The Political Economy of Racism in Venezuela, 32(2) Latin American Perspectives 72, 76 (2005).

144 Trudie O. Coker, Globalization and State Capital Accumulation: Deteriorating Economic and Political Rights in Venezuela, 26(5) Latin American Perspectives 75, 82 (1999).

145 George W. Schuyler, Perspectives on Venezuelan Democracy, 23(3) Latin American Perspectives 10 (1996).

a fragile democracy that was susceptible to foreign interest due to the lucrative oil reserves. Most importantly, the iMF and western nations prevailed upon the country to implement neo-liberal policies that left the masses disgruntled and disenfranchised by their political elites. This political turmoil climaxed in the last quarter of the century during the regimes of Carlos Andrés Pérez, Ramón José Velásquez and Rafael Caldera whose aggressive policies of privatization triggered the emergence of populism and socialist movements.'46

3.2.2. The Rise of Hugo Chávez and Bolivarianism

Hugo Rafael Chávez a decorated and charismatic military leader was elected the President in '998. This was his maiden attempt at competitive politics after being released from prison for leading a failed coup against the unpopular government of western leaning President Carlos Andrés Pérez in I992.'47 President Pérez implemented aggressive neo-liberal policies resulted in the reduced the oil revenues after the government reduced its stake in the industry.148 As part of his political change President Chávez promulgated a new constitution in 1999 christened the Bolivarian Constitution. This legal document was an admixture of pluralist and participatory policies that sort to accelerate grassroots participation in the electoral process.149

in essence, Chávez strategically rebranded himself as modern day Simón Bolívar seeking to emancipate the country from the control of the elites who were out of touch with the masses.150 He appealed to his signature red beret, machismo image and eloquence to champion a novel political ideology that fused together socialism and populism that was later christened "Bolivarianism." According to Víctor Figueroa the principal hallmarks of Bolivarian system of government are recovery and expansion of the state's ability to intervene in the economic process, increasing the standard of living of the popular sectors and a radical transformation of the political regime.151

in terms of socio-economic program he diverted significant proportions of the oil revenue into social welfare program such as health care, education, housing and public infrastructure that benefited the masses. Moreover, in 2006 he sponsored the passing of the Communal Council Law which incorporated the community groups in

146 Antonio Velasco Castro, Privatization and Democracy in Venezuela, 32(3) Latin American Perspectives '12 (2005).

147 Kurt Weyland, Peasants or Bankers in Venezuela? Presidential Popularity and Economic Reform Approval, 1989-1993, 51(2) Political Research Quarterly 341, 355 (1998).

148 Thad Dunning, Endogenous Oil Rents, 43(3) Comparative Political Studies 379, 383 (2010).

149 Daniel Hellinger, When "No"Means "Yes to Revolution": Electoral Politics in Bolivarian Venezuela, 32(3) Latin American Perspectives 8, '' (2005).

150 Kurt Weyland, Economic Voting Reconsidered: Crisis and Charisma in the Election of Hugo Chávez, 36(7) Comparative Political Studies 822, 826 (2003).

151 Víctor M. Figueroa, The Bolivarian Government of Hugo Chávez: Democratic Alternative for Latin America?, 32(1) Critical Sociology '87, 200 (2006).

the economic planning process.152 This change was followed by the Law of Contract, 2009 which encouraged private sector investment with a proviso that 3% of their profits be directed to social responsibility.153 This populist economic policy bolstered his political clout among the majority poor who had borne the brunt of the neo-liberal policies as implemented by his predecessors.154 This grassroots approach transformed his Partido Socialista Unido de Venezuela (PSUV) party into a political juggernaut that steamrolled its way into three successive electoral victories.

in terms of foreign policy, he used the lucrative income from the oil windfall to make political in-roads across Latin America by championing against anti-Americanism.155 He also forged close ties with Cuban patriarch Fidel Castro in a bid to combat American influence in the region. From the outset, this political ideology did not sit well with Washington which engaged in a program known as "Democracy Promotion" in Venezuela. This campaign witnessed the Bush government funneling funds to opposition movements through the National Endowment for Democracy (NED). On his part, President Chávez read mischief arguing it was strategic plan to institute regime change.156 This apprehension hit a peak in April 2002 after a failed coup that was led by Pedro Carmona the de facto leader of the Venezuelan Federation of Chambers of Commerce and Production (Fedecámaras). This political turbulence poisoned the already frosty relationship between the two leaders prompting President Chávez to hit back at President Bush by branding him an imperialist.157 This prompted him to counter the American influence by cementing his foreign relationship with other global powers such Russia, China, Turkey, iran, iraq and Libya.

3.2.3. The Reign of Nicolás Maduro Regime

On 5 April 2011 President Chávez died in Caracas while undergoing treatment for cancer thereby paving the way for his loyal deputy Nicolás Maduro. Upon assuming office the mustachioed former bus driver promised to carry the mantle of Bolivarianism and follow the footsteps of his predecessor. He won the elections in 2011 but with a narrower margin compared to his more charismatic and charming

152 Matt Wilde, Contested Spaces: The Communal Councils and Participatory Democracy in Chávez's Venezuela, 44(1) Latin American Perspectives 140, 145 (2017).

153 Steve Ellner, Class Strategies in Chavista Venezuela: Pragmatic and Populist Policies in a Broader Context, 46(1) Latin American Perspectives 167, 172 (2019).

154 Cristóbal Valencia Ramírez, Venezuela's Bolivarian Revolution: Who Are the Chavistas?, 32(3) Latin America Perspective 79, 84 (2005).

155 Iñaki Sagarzazu & Fernando Mouron, Hugo Chávez's Polarizing Legacy: Chavismo, Media, and Public Opinion in Argentina's Domestic Politics, 37(1) Revista de Ciencia Política 147, 150 (2017).

156 Christopher I. Clement, Confronting Hugo Chávez: United States "Democracy Promotion" in Latin America, 32(3) Latin American Perspectives 60, 61 (2005).

157 N. Scott Cole, Hugo Chávez and President Bush's Credibility Gap: The Struggle Against US Democracy Promotion, 28(4) International Political Science Review 493, 497 (2007).

predecessor. However, his regime was beset with a series U.S. led economic sanctions coupled with dwindling oil prices that resulted in high inflation rates and rapid economic downturn. This precarious economic situation resulted in acute shortage of basic necessities and humanitarian crisis that triggered mass emigration into neighboring Brazil and Colombia.

Nonetheless, the peak of his political nightmare began in January 2019. Juan Gerardo Guaidó Márquez, the President of National Assembly swore himself as the President of Venezuela. He argued the Maduro presidency was illegitimate and invoked Article 233 of the Constitution which allows the National Assembly to replace a sitting President.158 This political change triggered a political earthquake that ripped the country right in the middle with the corporate elite supporting the change while large swathes of the military officials remained loyal to the regime. On one hand, the western countries recognized Guaidó while Maduro enjoyed the support of Russia, China, Cuba, Nicaragua, iran and Syria. However, this change turned unsuccessful after Guaidó failed to secure the support of the military and the masses.

3.2.4. Neoconservatism

According to Justin Vaisse this political ideology stands on five pillars: internationalism, primacy, unilateralism, militarism and democracy.159 it gained currency during the era of President Ronald Reagan who offered military support to various anti-communist movements across the globe.160 However, this movement hit a peak during the Presidency of George W. Bush (45) after the terrorist attacks of September 2001. This callous attack on innocent civilians led to the paradigmatic shift in American policy which sought to neutralize states perceived to harbor, incubate and sympathize with terrorist groups.161 The point of origin in realizing this objective was Operation Endure Freedom (OEF) which sought to destroy the Taliban regime that was suspected of protecting Al-Qaeda inside the rugged terrains of Afghanistan.162 Nonetheless, this mission was unsuccessful from inception due to absolute misunderstanding of the political terrains.163

158 Scott Cole 2007, at 497.

159 Justin Va'i'sse, Why Neoconservatism Still Matters, Policy Paper No. 20, Foreign Policy at Brookings (May 2010) (Oct. 30, 2019), available at https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/05_ neoconservatism_vaisse.pdf.

160 David H. Noon, Cold War Revival: Neoconservatives and Historical Memory in the War on Terror, 48(3) American Studies 75, 80 (2003).

161 John Yoo, International Law and the War in Iraq, 97(3) American Journal of international Law 563 (2003).

162 Ryan T. Williams, Dangerous Precedent: America's Illegal War in Afghanistan, 33(2) University of Pennsylvania Journal of international Law 564, 565 (2011).

163 Geoffrey Swenson, Why U.S. Efforts to Promote the Rule of Law in Afghanistan Failed, 42(1) international Security 114 (2017).

in spite of this abysmal failure, President Bush spearheaded this campaign by branding iraq, iran and North Koreas "the axis of evil" that threatened the world.164 This precarious foreign policy precipitated the confrontation with President Saddam Hussein of iraq had breached U.N. Resolution 687 of 1991 by of enriching stockpiles.165 Despite the glaring opposition and lack of legal foundation President Bush and British Prime Minister Tony Blair led the invasion of iraq in order to disarm Saddam Hussein.166 However, this quixotic mission turned ominous after iraq disintegrated into a dystopia of sectarian violence and terrorist insurgency that ushered in the infamous islamic State.167

The unpopular war coupled with the economic downturn blemished the Republican Party resulting in the landslide electoral victory of President Barrack Obama opened a new window of opportunity to undo the geopolitical damage caused by the Neoconservatism of the Bush regime.168 However, this political change was a mere cosmetic facelift after President Obama and Hilary Clinton agitated for the ultimate airstrike against Colonel Muammar Gaddafi under the guise of averting the dire humanitarian situation in the Libya.169 Just like iraq this humanitarian mission morphed into failed regime change after Libya became a safe haven of iSiS sympathizers, human traffickers and slave and organ traders.170

3.2.5. Enter President Donald Trump a Political Dark Horse or Trojan Horse for Neoconservatism?

President Donald Trump remains one of the enigmatic and controversial figures in the global politics history. Despite being the proverbial dark horse and political novice, the flashy business mogul cum reality television star pulled a historical electoral upset after defeating Hilary Clinton for the U.S. Presidency. in essence, Trump campaigned using the slogans of "America First" and "Make America Great Again" where nationalism would subsume globalism as the ideological hallmark.171

164 Ronli Sifris, Operation Iraqi Freedom: United States v. Iraq - the Legality of the War, 4(2) Melbourne Journal of International Law 521 (2003).

165 U.N. Security Council, Resolution 687 (1991), 3 April 1991, S/RES/687.

166 Anthony Carty, The Iraq Invasion as a Recent United Kingdom "Contribution to International Law," 16(1) European Journal of International Law 143, 144 (2005).

167 Charles Tiefer, The Iraq Debacle: The Rise and Fall of Procurement-Aided Unilateralism as a Paradigm of Foreign War, 29(1) University of Pennsylvania Journal of International Law 1, 2 (2007).

168 Chengxin Pan & Oliver Turner, Neoconservatism as Discourse: Virtue, Power and US Foreign Policy, 23(1) European Journal of International Relations 74, 75 (2017).

169 Nicolo Cantini & Dmitry Zavialov, Fixing Responsibility to Protect: Lessons from and Proposals for the Case of Libya, 2(1) Peace Human Rights Governance 75, 81 (2018).

170 Spencer Zifcak, The Responsibility to Protect After Libya and Syria, 13(1) Melbourne Journal of International Law 59 (2013).

171 James Curran, "Americanism, Not Globalism": President Trump and the American Mission, Lowy Institute, 2 July 2018 (Oct. 30, 2019), available at https://www.lowyinstitute.org/publications/americanism-not-globalism-president-trump-and-american-mission-0.

During the course of his campaign, he promised to end the pointless wars that nearly bankrupted the country. This drastic change in foreign and economic policy signified a major shift in the Republican Party whose foreign policy stood on neoconservatism and regime change.

indeed, President Trump temporarily fulfilled his promised to pacifist ambitions after reaching out to Russia and North Korea. it was therefore expected that his administration would extend the same courtesy to Venezuela which despite being one of the strongest Russian ally in the region posed no military threat to the United States.

At first there was uneasy silence from the administration which turned catastrophic after a Cabinet reshuffle that resulted in the infiltration of the neoconservatism in the regime. Firstly, the Secretary of State Rex Tillerson was replaced by Central intelligence Agency (CiA) Michael Pompeo. This signified a sudden change since Tillerson a former oilman from the Energy conglomerate Exxon Mobil was pacifist compared to Pompeo a neoconservative who has made repeated calls for regime changes in iran and Venezuela. More specifically, he supported the unconstitutional, illegitimate and unilateral"presidency" of Juan Guaido and called for President Maduro to immediately relinquish power with immediate effect to allow free and fair elections.172

Along a similar vein, John Bolton replaced General H.R. McMaster as the National Security Advisor in April 2018. This appointment was instrumental in poisoning the already strained relationship between the U.S. and Venezuela. Bolton, a hardhitting, iron fisted and unapologetic neoconservative whom President Trump has described as his "Hawk" horned his political skills at the Pentagon during the regime of President George W. Bush. in 2000 while a senior policy advisor at the right wing think tank American Enterprise institute (AEi) he published a paper lamenting the influence of globalism on America's legitimate right to use force.173

He bemoaned the rise of global legal framework such as the U.N. Charter, Rome Statute and international Landmine Convention interfered with America's duty as the watchdog for global security.174 in another paper he argued against international and customary international law as a source of law in strict sense.175 He adopted the John Austin positivist school of thought by arguing international law is not a source of law due to lack a formal and recognized enforcement authority. This publication was a clear indication of his downright revulsion towards the global legal framework on sovereignty and use of force.

172 Secretary Pompeo Urges Nicolás Maduro to Leave Venezuela, Fox News, ' May 2019 (Oct. 30, 2019), available at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oSI 'XX9UzRU&t=3's.

'73 John R. Bolton, Should We Take Global Governance Seriously?, '(2) Chicago Journal of International Law 205 (2000).

'74 Id. at 2'0.

'75 John R. Bolton, The Risks and Weaknesses of the International Criminal Court from America's Perspective, 64(') Law and Contemporary Problems '67, '7' (200').

During this tenure he formed the matrix of political power in Bush regime by joining forces with Dick Cheney, Donald Rumsfeld and Paul Wolfowitz as the chief architects of National Security Strategy of the United States in September 2002.176 This controversial document became the holy grail of 21st century neoconservatism by advocating for preemptive use of force, spreading of freedom and democracy across the globe.177 However, after the failed regime changes in iraq and Afghanistan, Bolton became unpopular in the Democrat controlled congress which shot down his nomination as the U.N. Ambassador. He then returned to the private sector as consultant to various conservative groups.

No sooner had Bolton been appointed by President Trump than he began venting his revulsion towards the leftist regimes in Cuba, Nicaragua and Venezuela by branding them the "Troika of Tyranny" that sought to resuscitate the ghost of communism in Latin America.178 During an interview with Fox News the mask slipped after Bolton singled out the Bolivarian regime as threat to American oil interest in the region. He further admitted the U.S. government was engaging various oil companies intending to invest in Venezuela under the new regime. These companies included the energy conglomerate CiTGO which has considerable investments in the Venezuela.179 This chilling admission cast serious aspersion on the goodwill and necessity of American intervention in Venezuela.

This volatile situation was further aggravated by President Trump who in sudden and absolute departure from his pacifist and nationalist ideology admitted the use of force against Venezuela was still an option. This remark triggered a ripple effect across the region reminiscent of the invasions of Reagan administration invasion of Nicaragua, Grenada and El Salvador.180

3.2.6. Determining the Legitimacy of the Juan Guaido Regime Change in determining the legitimacy of Juan Guaido Presidency, one requires a holistic and comprehensive understanding of the Constitution ofVenezuela. Article 141 stipulates the principles of public administration as honesty, participation, expeditiousness,

176 The National Security Strategy, The White House (September 2002) (Oct. 30, 2019), available at https:// georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/nsc/nss/2002/.

177 Emily Haslam & Wade Mansell, John Bolton and the United States' Retreat from International Law, 14(4) Social and Legal Studies 459, 464 (2005).

178 Josh Rogin, Bolton Promises to Confront Latin America's 'Troika of Tyranny," Washington Post, 1 November 2018 (Oct. 30, 2019), available at https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/global-opinions/ bolton-promises-to-confront-latin-americas-troika-of-tyranny/2018/11/01/df57d3d2-ddf5-11e8-85df-7a6b4d25cfbb_story.html.

179 John Bolton: i Don't Think Maduro Has the Military on His Side, Fox News, 25 January 2019 (Oct. 30, 2019), available at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8av-cPP1uPE&t=66s.

180 Peter S. Michaels, Lawless Intervention: United States Foreign Policy in El Salvador and Nicaragua, 7(2) Boston College Third World Law Journal 223 (1987).

efficacy, efficiency, transparency, accountability and responsibility.181 This section underscores the importance of political leaders exercising public power for the ultimate benefit of the people. Nonetheless, the fact that western countries were eager to support the regime fails to confirm the public support required as stipulated by the Constitution.

This concern is anchored on Article 152 of the Constitution which states that end objectives of international relations shall be to the benefit and interest of the people.182 This clause nullifies the American intervention after John Bolton admitted they had vested and strategic interest in the oil sector. Most importantly, Article 228 states that election of the president shall be universal suffrage by direct and secret ballot in accordance with the law. This significant clause delegitimizes the purported Presidency of Guaido who was never elected into office by the people of Venezuela.

Admittedly, Article 233 grants the National Assembly the power to replace a sitting president.183 However, that clause does not operate in isolation since it is subject to other provisions. Firstly, Article 254 establishes the Supreme Tribunal of Justice (STJ) as the highest judicial organ in the country. This body comprises of the most eminent jurists with at least fifteen years of professional experience.184 Article 262 as read together with Article 266 of the Constitution grants the STJ the power to determine whether the President should replace by the President of National Assembly.185 Most importantly, Article 138 of the Constitution states that any authority that is usurped authority is ineffective, null and void. Finally, Article 139 states that misuse of public power or misapplication of power or violation of Constitution gives rise to individual liability.186

3.2.7. Legal Issues on American Intervention in Venezuela

3.2.7.1. Lack of Justification Based on Humanitarian Concerns

From the outset this paper argues in principle that any form of U.S. intervention in Venezuela whether militarily or politically is illegal and unwarranted. As Barry Benjamin points out the framers of the U.N. Charter proscribed the humanitarian intervention to safeguard the territorial integrity and sovereignty of the member states.187 Even though the interpretation of the Charter of has since evolved to befit the changing circumstances the same cannot apply to the context of Venezuela.

Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of)'s Constitution of 1999 with Amendments through 2009 (Oct. 30, 2019), available at https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Venezuela_2009.pdf?lang=en.

Barry M. Benjamin, Unilateral Humanitarian Intervention: Legalizing the Use of Force to Prevent Human Rights Atrocities, 16(1) Fordham International Law Journal 120, 136 (1992).

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84

85

86

Firstly, there is no scintilla of evidence that the Maduro government is responsible for gross violation of human rights against the civilians. in that regard, the controversial defense of controversial justification of humanitarian intervention does not suffice. Secondly, the American government has not followed the due process of procuring the resolution from the Security Council that would warrant any form of humanitarian intervention in Venezuela.188 Nonetheless, it is clear the American mission is purely a matter of promoting its national interest across Latin America rather than ensuring humanitarian welfare and geopolitical stability.

3.2.7.2. Lack of Justification for Attacking Venezuela on Grounds of Self-Defense in line with the express provisions of Articles 2(4) and 51 of the U.N. Charter and relevant principles of customary international law self-defense is a viable reason to use force against armed attack against a hostile state.189 in the Nicaragua case the iCJ defined as an armed attack:

it may be considered to be agreed that an armed attack must be understood as including not merely action by regular armed forces across an international border, but also "the sending by or on behalf of a State of armed bands, groups, irregulars or mercenaries, which carry out acts of armed force against another State of such gravity as to amount to"... an actual armed attack conducted by regular forces, "or its substantial involvement therein."190

However, it is axiomatic that Venezuela does not pose any threat of armed attack against the United States of America. Therefore, there is no justification for armed attack against the regime of Nicolás Maduro.

Secondly, in the Oil Platforms case the iCJ was categorical that the law presumes an armed attack against the party responding in self-defense.191 it then follows suit that the party which launches an armed attack on grounds of self-defense bears the burden of proving it is an actual victim responding to armed attack from hostile parties.192 However, a critical analysis of this indicates the United States has failed to demonstrate any element of military threat from Venezuela that would warrant the

188 Chelsea O'Donnell, The Development of the Responsibility to Protect: An Examination of the Debate over the Legality of Humanitarian Intervention, 24(3) Duke Journal of Comparative and international Law 557, 558 (2014).

189 Müge Kinacioglu, The Principle of Non-Intervention at the United Nations: The Charter Framework and the Legal Debate, Perceptions (Summer 2005) (Oct. 30, 2019), available at https://sam.gov.tr/ wp-content/uploads/2012/01/Muge-Kinacioglu.pdf.

190 Case Concerning Military and Paramilitary Activities in and Against Nicaragua, supra note 84, para. 195.

191 Case Concerning Oil Platforms, supra note 96.

192 Rebaz Khdir, The Right to Self-Defence in International Law as a Justification for Crossing Borders: The Turkey-PKK Case within the Borders of Iraq, 4(4) Russian Law Journal 62, 66 (2016).

military response. in light of this legal position, it is fair to surmise the U.S. is prohibited from attacking Venezuela under the pretext of exercising the right to self-defense.

3.2.7.3. intermeddling with the Sovereignty of Venezuela and the Doctrine of Vicarious Liability

it is a trite fact that any form of political change should conform to the provisions of the Constitution as the supreme body of law. According to Hans Kelsen the Constitution is the symbol of the grundnorm which lies at the apex of the legal system hence giving validity to other legal norms.'93 This legal arrangement is what maintains the rule of law and prevents any society from descending into anarchy.'94 Similar strands of thought apply to Venezuela which stands on the verge of a serious constitutional crisis.

Firstly, the act of Juan Guaidó swearing himself as the President of Venezuela was declared illegal by the Supreme Tribunal of Justice (STJ) in accordance with Article 266 of the Constitution.'95 The net effect of this declaration is that Nicolás Maduro remains the bona fide President of Venezuela. in spite of this position, the Western countries and Brazil have remained steadfast in recognizing and supporting the Guaidó in order to undermine the Maduro regime.

However, this policy is illegal and contravenes the rules of customary international law in terms of respecting the sovereignty and domestic laws of individual countries.'96 More specifically, Articles ' and 2 of the Declaration of Friendly Nations which prohibits states from interfering with the internal affairs of other countries.'97 This inaction by the western countries holds them vicariously liable for the actions of Guaidó and his supporters who are their agents in Venezuela so to speak.

Similarly, if one extrapolates the holding of the Nicaragua case within the context of civil strife and intermeddling, it is evident that the United States played a critical role in the rise of Juan Guaidó. One way or another Guaidó is the "civilian version" of the contras since he operates under the ostensible control and support of the American government. Therefore, one is able to establish a credible chain of command between Washington and the chaos and anarchy that is occasioned by Guaidó and his supporters in Caracas.

in the same vein the holding of the iCJ in the Hostages case in tandem with the doctrine of vicarious liability is equally applicable to this context. in that case it was

'93 Michael S. Green, Hans Kelsen and the Logic of Legal Systems, 54(2) Alabama Law Review 365, 376 (2003).

'94 Ricardo Gosalbo-Bono, The Significance of the Rule of Law and Its Implications for the European Union and the United States, 72(2) University of Pittsburgh Law Review 229, 23' (20'0).

'95 Id.

'96 Fulvio M. Palombino, Compliance with International Judgments: Between Supremacy of International Law and National Fundamental Principles, 75 ZaoRV 503, 504 (20'5).

'97 Id.

evident Ayatollah Khomeini was the ultimate controlling authority of the students prior and after they seized control of the Embassy in Tehran. in addition, he was bound to benefit from their actions by invigorating the atmosphere of the revolution against the USA. However, the mere fact that he failed to restrain their actions was reason enough for iran to be held culpable for their actions.

The same case applies to the nexus between USA and Juan Guaidó in Venezuela. in essence, his presidency was nullified by the Supreme Tribunal of Justice in line with Article 266(2) of the Constitution. in spite of this nullification, the west and Brazil breathed life into this illegality by continuing to recognize and support Guaidó and his supporters who continue to destabilize across the country. Therefore, it is cogent to argue the west is vicariously liable under international law for the damage and chaos occasioned by Guaidó and his supporters in the country.

3.2.7.4. The Legitimacy of the Presidency of Nicolás Maduro from the international Perspective

By and large, the international community is torn apart on the legitimacy between the Maduro and Guaidó regimes. The most viable option in resolving this quandary is invoking the relevant provisions of domestic law. This is because the Constitutional being the supreme law of the land is what prevents society from descending into chaos and anarchy.198 First and foremost, Article 228 of the Venezuelan Constitution stipulates the President shall be elected by universal suffrage directly by the people and secret ballot.199 Unlike Nicolás Maduro, Juan Guaidó election was never elected by the people, if anything, he swore himself into office under the blessings of western countries and Brazil. in addition, his interim Presidency was later nullified by the Supreme Council of Justice (SCJ) in line with Article 266(2) of the Constitution. in effect, this decision delegitimized his actions thereby reverting back to the previous status quo with Nicolás Maduro as the President.

in light of this legal position one may argue the Maduro presidency commensurates with the prevailing constitutional order and the rule of law. This is because the Constitution being the supreme law grants validity to the political authority.200 Furthermore, one of the hallmarks of liberal democracy is the ability of the people to make their political decisions and not being imposed by external sources.201 Therefore, it is self-evident the west and Brazil are violating the rights of the Venezuelan people by superimposing Juan Guaidó presidency upon them.

Michel Rosenfeld, The Rule of Law and the Legitimacy of Constitutional Democracy, 74(5) Southern California Law Review 1307 (2001).

Larry C. Backer, From Constitution to Constitutionalism: A Global Framework for Legitimate Public Power Systems, 113(3) Penn State Law Review 671, 676 (2009).

Sveinung Arnesen, Legitimacy from Decision-Making Influence and Outcome Favourability: Results from

General Population Survey Experiments, 65(1S) Political Studies 146, 148 (2017).

200

3.2.7.5. Violation of the Permanent Sovereignty over Natural Resources of Venezuelan People

The principle of permanent sovereignty natural resources is instrumental in granting countries especially those in the right global south to control their resources.202 in hindsight, John Bolton was emphatic in admitting the American government was reaching out to various corporations such as CiTGO intending to invest in the lucrative Venezuelan energy sector. This chilling admission confirms any form of American intervention in Venezuela would amount to gross and egregious violation of the socioeconomic rights of the Venezuelan people.203 More specifically, the iCCPR, iCESCR and Rio Convention recognize this intrinsic right of the Venezuelan people to control their resources.204 However, if the regime change substitutes the oil interest in favor foreign corporations and not the Venezuelan people amounts to violation of the right to control natural resources.

Conclusion

The situation in Venezuela and Ukraine is emblematic of President Eisenhower's warning how the Military-industrial Complex poses an existential threat on global stability and the international rule of law. This precarious situation is exacerbated by the fact that black letter law and customary international law are blotted with loopholes on the justification of the use of force. it is therefore imperative for all the relevant material stakeholders to revisit and rectify this situation. Secondly, it is judicious to argue the governments of President Yanukovych in Ukraine and President Maduro in Venezuela were fraught with various shortcomings ranging from corruption, cronyism and repression of political dissidents. Nonetheless, this democratic concern does not justify any form of foreign intervention under the guise of promoting democracy and regime change. if anything, it is the duty and right of the people to replace these governments from power in line with the relevant provisions of their respective Constitutions. in the light of the foregoing it is instrumental for the United Nations to revisit the Declaration of Friendly Nations and upgrade its status from soft law into hard law convention in order to protect the integrity and sovereignty of the weaker and smaller states from illegal foreign intervention. Finally, it would be prudent to put in place drastic criminal sanctions

202 Yolanda T. Chekera & Vincent O. Nmehielle, The International Law Principle of Permanent Sovereignty over Natural Resources as an Instrument for Development: The Case of Zimbabwean Diamonds, 6( 1) African Journal of Legal Studies 69, 77 (2013).

203 Nicolaas Schrijver, Self-Determination of Peoples and Sovereignty over Natural Wealth and Resources in Realizing the Right to Development: Essays in Commemoration of 25 Years of the United Nations Declaration on the Right to Development 95 (New York; Geneva: United Nations, 2013).

204 Hans Morten Haugen, The Right to Self-Determination and Natural Resources: The Case of Western Sahara, 3(1) Law, Environment and Development Journal 70, 73 (2007).

against nation states that illegally invoke the use of force in international law. This measure would be instrumental in safeguarding the international rule of law by protecting the smaller countries in global south and Eastern Europe from the needless attacks from powerful states.

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Information about the author

Joseph Lutta (Mombasa, Kenya) - Advocate, High Court of Kenya, Part Time Lecturer, Pwani University (P.O. Box 95475-80106, Mombasa, Kenya; e-mail: joelutta@ gmail.com).