CC BY
2Volume 8 Issue 3, 2024, pp. 25-40
doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2024-8-3-25-40
Original Research
A comparative analysis of terminological inconsistency in scientific translation from English into Arabic across different medical fields
by Zakaryia Almahasees and Islam Husienat
Zakaryia Almahasees
ORCID 0000-0002-4035-7165 h [email protected] Applied Science Private University, Jordan
Islam Husienat
ORCID 0000-0001-9066-5505 h [email protected]
King Abdullah University Hospital, University of Science and Technology, Jordan
Article history Received July 5, 2024 | Revised July 31, 2024 | Accepted September 2, 2024 Conflicts of interest The authors declared no conflicts of interest
Research funding This research received grant no. (108/2023) from the Arab Observatory for Translation (an affiliate of ALECSO), which is supported by the Literature, Publishing & Translation Commission in Saudi Arabia doi 10.22363/2521-442X-2024-8-3-25-40
For citation Almahasees, Z., & Husienat, I. (2024). A comparative analysis of terminological inconsistency in scientific translation from English into Arabic across different medical fields. Training, Language and Culture, 8(3), 25-40.
Translating medical terminologies from English into Arabic poses a challenge that usually directly impacts precision and efficiency in medical communication and, hence, the treatment of patients. This paper aims to explore terminology inconsistencies in medical translation and propose methods to enhance accuracy and consistency, thereby addressing a research gap that ultimately impacts healthcare delivery. It addresses research questions regarding common medical inconsistencies in English-to-Arabic translation, their impact on patients as perceived by healthcare professionals, and the tools and strategies employed by medical translators to ensure accuracy. The study is both quantitative and qualitative in nature. In the qualitative part, 100 medical terms were given to 10 medical translators. Out of 100 terms, the study qualitatively analyses 10 translated terms with high inconsistency. The data were classified according to subjects such as ambiguity in the source terminology, variability in translator proficiency, and cultural factors impacting translation. The thematic categorisation of the responses provides an analysis of the main factors contributing to terminological inconsistencies and the challenges faced when translating medical terminology across various specialties. Additionally, two open-ended surveys were disseminated, one involving 50 medical translators and 50 medical specialists in the quantitative part. The respondents'feedback was analysed to determine the types of errors, their impact on patient clinical outcomes, and the effectiveness of translation processes and tools. The study found that an overwhelming majority of doctors (80%) and nurses (75%) constantly come across examples of translation errors. Medical translators pointed out the complexity of medical vocabulary and professional development in developing continuous improvement. The impact on patient care was significant. Examples given in the findings included poorly understood terms such as 'hypertension', 'myocardial infarction', and 'cerebrovascular accident'. Other strategies identified to review and eliminate errors were translation tools, quality control by peer and cadre support, and continuing education. Cultural differences and localisation were cited as influential in delivering accurate translations. The implications of this research are significant for medical translators, healthcare professionals, and patients. Since there will be an improvement in the quality of translation practices, the accuracy of the communication is more likely to improve. Hence, there will be health-related outcomes for patients and seekers of health information.
KEYWORDS: medical translation, terminology inconsistency, English-Arabic translation, scientific translation
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Translation, a process of transferring meaning from one language to another, is a complex task. In medical translation, this complexity is significantly amplified. Whether it's for specialised or non-specialised audiences, medical translation is a
1. INTRODUCTION
crucial field, requiring a deep understanding of various forms of pharmaceutical and scientific translation related to medical subjects (Gonzales, 2016). Medical translation is a rapidly expanding and complex field that encompasses various genres. The scope is vast, from general health information pamphlets and
© Zakaryia Almahasees, Islam Husienat 2024
Licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License
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drug package inserts (DPIs) to highly specialised medical publications and essays published in medical journals. The medical translator's role is to interpret medical language. Medical language differs from normal language due to its accuracy and the specialty of the vocabulary used (Al-Shloul, 2023). The present state of translation from English into Arabic is characterised by gross terminological incoherence. It can be attributed to the many discrepancies between the two languages, such as lexical, phonological, morphological, syntactic, grammatical, and cultural. The requirement for accurate medical translation is crucial. Despite this reality, there is an incomplete understanding of the types of terminological inconsistency in different medical fields. Moreover, little deep research has been conducted on the strategies and remedies that might be applied to address these disparities efficiently. The current study aims to fill this gap by closely examining terminological inconsistencies in scientific translation from English into Arabic in many medical disciplines.
Medical language is usually considered a special language, separated from everyday ordinary language, because of its peculiar nature and terminology. Haddad and Shunnaq (1997) defined the medical language in 1997 more precisely. They called it a sub-language of scientific language, characterised by the use of the present tense, forms of verbs, shortened forms, and word combinations. The language of science is obsessively exact and objective. In this regard, Newmark (1988) commented that medical translation is a subheading of technical translation. Technical language refers to the exact terminologies and specialised jargon that are unique to a particular profession or field of expertise. The term refers to the specific language and collective knowledge that develops within a certain field over time. It is usually rich in significance and highly precise (Dima et al., 2021). Newmark (1988) suggested three stages of technical language: academic, professional, and popular. The academic category includes Latin and Greek terminology often used in professional journals, including terms such as phlegmasia alba dolens. The professional category includes formal terminology used by the professionals, including terms such as epidemic parotitis, scarlatina, or tetanus. The popular category includes general vocabulary, as well as many familiar alternative terms like mumps, chickenpox, scarlet fever, stroke, and lockjaw.
Most of the medical lexicon is derived from Latin and Greek. The distinction between medical practice and priestly ministrations may be traced back to the first differentiations. Many phrases related to anatomy, pathology, and therapy in modern books have been passed down with few or trivial changes in their meaning (Gordiyenko, 2019). Regarding English medical terminology, the dominant aspect is using terms derived from Greco-Latin origins, which comprise a significant portion of the medical vocabulary. The medical English field contains many morphologically complicated terms consisting of Latin or Greek roots and affixes. McAllister et al. (2022) categorized medical terms based on their Greco-Latin origins into the following groups: (i) terms formed by combining a prefix with an independent root (this group includes words like premature,
where 'pre-' is combined with the root 'mature'; (ii) terms formed by combining a root with a suffix (an example is bronchitis, where the root 'bronch' is combined with the suffix '-itis'; and (iii) compound terms (this group consists of terms like headache, which is formed by combining the words 'head' and 'ache').
The translation of medical texts is a subject that requires a great deal of knowledge: after all, more than just language, you need to know the most accurate terminologies, concepts, and contexts within the terms of medicine (Khan et al., 2023). Translation in this area is important, as translation errors may affect patient care and clinical outcomes and hinder the rapid dissemination of medical knowledge. Medical documents include patient records, clinical trial results, information on pharmaceuticals, and medical research articles and reports. These texts must be meticulously translated to avert any possible misunderstanding that could expose patients to life-threatening health hazards. A medical dictionary contains specialised terms, abbreviations, jargon, and specific medical terminology, making translation more challenging. This is because the translator must not only be an expert in linguistics or modern languages but also possess specialised knowledge in the medical field (Ozolins et al., 2020). It is also very important to respect and adapt to the various medical practices and terminologies in different countries and cultures. An incorrect translation could result in cultural confusion or a refusal to comply with medical instructions, ultimately threatening the patient's health. Because of this, this sector is increasingly embracing modern techniques such as machine translation and AI, which help human translators. While these technologies can help process large volumes of text and generate much of the initial draft, a thorough review by trained medical translators is essential. This ensures that the final translation accurately conveys all necessary details and is reliable in the target language.
Thus, terminological inconsistencies in translating medical texts from English into Arabic give ground to misunderstanding, misdiagnosis, and ineffective treatment. The major sources of inconsistency are different methods applied in translation, the absence of standardised medical terminologies, and the translators' different linguistic backgrounds. It is also multiplied by the rapid development of medical science, which continues to present new terms and concepts that may not have uniform translations. Identifying and rationalising these inconsistencies is incumbent in improving the quality and reliability of Arabic medical communications. Although the role of accurate medical communication is on the rise, a surprising dearth of extremely thorough studies exists in English and Arabic. More importantly, no research investigates the medical discrepancies in qualitative and semi-structured surveys conducted with medical specialists and translators. Most available studies focus on either general issues in translation or specific terms in medicine without comparing the terminological consistency in using the terms within several medical specialisations. Moreover, little is known about the quality and accuracy of health information disseminated to health professionals and patients who use Arabic.
by Zakaryia Almahasees and Islam Husienat
'Terminological inconsistencies in translating medical texts from English into Arabic give ground to misunderstanding, misdiagnosis, and ineffective treatment. The major sources of inconsistency are different methods applied in translation, the absence of standardised medical terminologies, and the translators' different linguistic backgrounds. It is also multiplied by the rapid development of medical science, which continues to present new terms and concepts that may not have uniform translations'
The current study examines the terminological inconsistency in translating medical terms from English into Arabic. To that end, the study addresses the following research questions.
1. What are the common inconsistencies observed in translating medical terms from English to Arabic, and what are the underlying reasons for these inconsistencies?
2. What are the perceptions of medical specialists (physicians and nurses) and medical translators regarding the English medical terminological inconsistency from English into Arabic?
2. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
2.1. History of medical translation
Medical translation is almost as old as humanity, with lively exchanges from ancient times to the present day. As empires expanded their geographical, economic, and political reach through trade and conquest, they needed to transmit cultural knowledge, including medical texts and practices. In ancient times, Greek and Roman medicine were informed by hieroglyphs and cuneiform found in Egypt and Mesopotamia (Haddad & Shunnaq, 1997). In the early Franco-Islamic times, using vernacular languages was a means of rebellion against the Abbasid caliphate. Finally, Greek physicians Hippocrates (460-370 BCE) and Galen (131 -200 CE) published widely. Their works were translated into Latin. These Latin versions were distributed across the Roman Empire in its extremities, first to the western part of the Empire and, later on, to medieval Europe. The Islamic Golden Age was a turning point for medical translation, with scholars at the House of Wisdom in Baghdad translating hundreds of key Greek, Roman, and Persian medical texts from original languages into Arabic. These Arabic translations were rendered into Latin, so Europeans learned about Greek medicine from the Arabs (Baker & Saldanha, 2019).
Medical translation stepped in between the 9th and 12th centuries to preserve the knowledge accumulated in Europe's gloomy Dark Ages and spread it throughout the region. Monasteries provided the backbone of medieval learning, and it was here that scribal monks translated the medical treatises from the languages of Arabic and Greek to a mother tongue, Latin. In Italy, the School of Salerno gained a special status as a cultural bridge between the medical knowledge of the Islamic world and Europe. The first light of the Renaissance marked Classical knowledge and the real comeback of Greek medicine into the
region (Rasulova, 2020). Latin, the written language of medieval Europe, was still used to publish medical books. However, the invention of printing presses now made it easier to retranslate medical treatises from their original Greek into Latin and subsequently into vernacular languages. Andreas Vesalius, the Belgian anatomist and physician of the High Renaissance, writing in 1543, published his incredible anatomy treatise De Humani Corporis Fabric, which corrected many mistakes of the knowledge accumulated by the Founders of Medicine and set new standards for medical education while superseding previous anatomical works (McAllister et al., 2022).
In modern times, there has been a massive growth in medical science during the 19th and 20th centuries This led to a significant need for translating scientific documents worldwide. International bodies such as the World Health Organization clarified that precise medical translations were crucial for sharing global health-related knowledge. With the advent of late 20th-and early 21st century digital transformations, medical translation saw computer-assisted tools like machine translation and neural machine translation come into play. They have markedly improved how fast and accurate these translations are, making it simpler to match the swift advances in medical research. Today, every day, medical translation is important in a mingling world to ensure that no language or cultural barrier ever impedes healthcare information and thus continues to promote health everywhere.
2.2. Research on medical terminology translation
The major obstacle to producing accurate and reliable speech during healthcare situations is variance in terminology unique to medical translation. The most prominent cause behind such variance seems to be linguistic differences between source and target languages, quite substantially while considering the English language in contrast with Arabic. Medical terms in English are often made up of intricate and highly specialised vocabularies that lack equivalents in Arabic, necessitating using descriptive phrases or terms from other languages in translation. Depending on the translator's background knowledge and understanding, this may lead to different translations for the same terms. This could cause confusion in addition to misunderstanding. Furthermore, complexity can arise during the translation process, making it difficult to achieve consistent and accurate rendering across various documents. This challenge is often due to differences in syntax and grammatical structure between the two languages.
Yaseen (2013) conducted research on the nature of terminological incoherence when translating English medical terminology into Arabic. His data sources included seven Arabic medical books, two medical dictionaries, and thirty-five drug packet inserts. Additionally, interviews were conducted with MDs and Palestinian pharmaceutical firms to describe how the translation was performed. Questionnaires were used to develop a scale for measuring the prevalence of English medical terms and different types of equivalence. The study identified five
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types of terminological inconsistency related to transliteration, Arabisation, and descriptive equivalence. The study reported that the most commonly used type of translation in specialised fields was descriptive translation, while Arabisation was the least used.
A study conducted by Argeg (2015) examined the issues that arose in the translation of medical terms from English into Arabic. The results indicated that literal translation, over-reliance on transliteration, inconsistency, and the lack of up-to-date English-Arabic medical dictionaries contributed to problems in medical translation. The findings provided evidence that a full understanding of medical terminologies in Arabic and making informed decisions about their acceptable equivalents are crucial for ensuring translation accuracy.
Al-Jarf (2018) evaluated English medical terms selected from several English-Arabic medical dictionaries to assess the various Arabic translations available. The study aimed to identify the types of Arabic equivalents, describe their limitations, and discuss the issues students face due to the multiple Arabic translations. To standardise and evaluate the equivalents, two categories were established, each defined and accompanied by examples. Trainees participated in the evaluation by taking a test on Arabic medical terminology and completing a questionnaire survey. This third instrument helped pinpoint the challenges encountered by the trainees. A comprehensive report was produced, detailing the analysis and evaluation of the Arabic equivalents, the medical terminology test, and the survey responses.
Arabaoui and Aissou (2021) were able to uncover translation procedures that place significant emphasis on terminological accuracy and the precise rendering of newly developed medical and pharmaceutical terminology from English into Arabic. The study highlighted that translating medical and pharmaceutical terminology is a highly complex activity, requiring specialised knowledge and experience. It recommended that translators stay updated on new developments in the medical field, always have access to medical dictionaries, and regularly consult medical terminology databases. The research also emphasised the importance of close cooperation with qualified medical translators who are proficient in localisation. The study concluded that a comprehensive understanding of medical terminology in Arabic is crucial for translation students, and they must learn how to select the most appropriate equivalents effectively.
To this effect, Alhussaini (2021) conducted a study on the translation process of medical reports from specialist physicians to non-specialist patients in Saudi Arabia. This research analysed data collected from medical reports, interviews, and questionnaires, applying functionalism theories based on Vermeer and Chesterman's (2021) Skopos theory and Nord's (1997) Loyalty Principle. Data were gathered from four different hospitals and analysed with respect to the equivalents used in translating English medical terms into Arabic, the methodologies employed by translators in this process, and how patients understood the Arabic equivalents of English medical terms. In contrast to the top-down approaches suggested in previous studies,
this study proposed a bottom-up approach to address the terminological challenges of medical translation. The innovative data generated by this research promises to be a starting point for further efforts to improve the development and usage of medical terminology. The study recommended that, to resolve terminological inconsistency in medical Arabic, medical translation methodologies should be aligned with the structure of the Arabic language.
Mohammed (2022) investigated the difficulties involved in translating English medical abbreviations into Arabic, particularly those that have multiple meanings or vary in their form as acronyms. The research involved analysing materials from various medical settings, such as graphic signs, medical reports, admission forms, and prescriptions, which included 18 different abbreviations and acronyms needing translation. The findings exposed significant inconsistencies in how they were used across different medical texts. The study emphasised the critical need for proper training of medical translators to navigate these challenges effectively. It also pointed out that the abundance of abbreviations, acronyms, and initialisms in medicine, appearing in different forms, contributes to a lack of standardisation in documents like medical reports, leading to various complications.
In another study, Mohammed and Maria (2023) examined the inconsistencies in translating medical terms from English to Arabic and outlined the strategies used by both professional and non-professional Arab translators to tackle the corresponding difficulties. The study also discussed the concept of equivalence in medical terminology, offering a theoretical analysis of how medical terms operate in both English and Arabic. It covered various aspects, including the nomenclature of diseases, symptoms, and viruses, as well as their practical applications. In this study, both qualitative and quantitative analyses were adopted. The data consisted of seven medical phrases and their Arabic translations. Each term was analysed in both the source and target languages using the samples gathered. The translation processes used to address each medical phrase were examined using the theoretical model by El-Zawawy (2016).
Alasbahy and Shamsi (2023) outlined the problems in the process of translating medical terms and analysed the techniques applied by professional translators to surmount these challenges. The dataset included 24 medical terms in English and their Arabic translations. All types of medical terminology were considered, except for those related to pharmacy. This exclusion was due to the fact that most pharmacy terms consist of formulas, trade names, and drug names, many of which cannot be accurately translated into Arabic. The study noted that the translation of medical terminology created a series of difficulties and challenges for medical students and researchers. Documenting these challenges led to the formulation of appropriate recommendations for mitigating obstacles encountered when working with medical terminology. Crucially, to overcome the problem of inconsistent medical terminology in Arabic, medical translations into Arabic must take into account the structure of the Arabic language.
by Zakaryia Almahasees and Islam Husienat
'The present study focuses mainly on the inconsistency of terminologies used in scientific translation from English to Arabic across many medical disciplines. In trying to discover the underlying causes for these inconsistencies, this study has extensively researched different medical terminologies and their translations by identifying the patterns of inconsistencies. The study probes into these inconsistencies in translation using both qualitative and quantitative research approaches'
Previous studies have recognised terminological inconsistency as a significant challenge in translating scientific texts from English into Arabic, especially in the medical field. However, no comprehensive study has yet systematically examined the variations across different medical specialties. Most studies related to this issue were confined to analysing individual medical terms or general themes and did not examine the detailed comparative aspects. In present times, a huge knowledge gap pertains to differences related to terminological inconsistencies between different medical specialties, particularly concerning the exact nature of variants. Moreover, some recent research does recognise the impact of translation errors on healthcare communication and, therefore, on patient care. The measurement of such effects is not addressed much in these publications, nor the real methods used by the translators to avoid these inconsistencies.
The present study focuses mainly on the inconsistency of terminologies used in scientific translation from English to Arabic across many medical disciplines. In trying to discover the underlying causes for these inconsistencies, this study has extensively researched different medical terminologies and their translations by identifying the patterns of inconsistencies. The study probes into these inconsistencies in translation using both qualitative and quantitative research approaches. It involves a critical review and research by medical professionals to establish the extent of these errors and their effect on health care. In addition, the study examines the strategies and tools used by medical interpreters to ensure accuracy and consistency. The study identifies and recommends best practices to result in better quality translations, with the goal of establishing the effectiveness of such strategies from both a translator's and health expert's perspectives. This generally upgrades the translation techniques in most medical specialties and aids communication and the quality of care for patients. The findings of this research are also of great interest and include various practical recommendations for further education and self-improvement of medical translators, teachers, and health professionals.
3. MATERIAL AND METHODS
3.1. Sampling process and rationale
The study employs a mixed research technique to systematically investigate the research topic of inconsistency in terminology when translating scientific literature from English to Arabic across several medical disciplines.
In the sampling process, 100 medical terms were purposefully selected for qualitative analysis based on their complexity and frequency of use in medical practice, as referenced in The Unified Medical Dictionary (Khayat, 2006). The selection aimed at representing a range of medical specialties, including cardiology, neurology, dermatology, and endocrinology, to capture terminological challenges across various fields. The short-listing process was conducted after consultations with medical experts and translators who refined the preliminary list to develop a comprehensive, representative sample for analysis. This method ensures that the selected terms accurately reflect the general issues in medical translation, providing a solid foundation for analysing patterns and causes of terminological inconsistencies.
Three medical translators were selected based on their professional experience, specialising in different medical fields. These senior translators, who are certified and trained, were chosen to provide insights into specific terminological problems within their specialisations, demonstrating a high degree of competence and adherence to standard practices.
3.2. Data analysis
In this study, data analysis was conducted on both qualitative and quantitative bases to provide a comprehensive overview of the terminological inconsistencies encountered in translating medical terminology from English into Arabic. Structurally, this paper is divided into two main parts: the qualitative analysis of translated terms and the quantitative assessment of survey data.
3.3. Qualitative part
For the qualitative research, a sample of 100 medical terms translated by three professional medical translators was used. Of these, 10 terms exhibiting the highest levels of inconsistency were selected for detailed analysis. Each term was examined for translation errors, cultural misinterpretations, and contextual challenges. These terms were then compared with established medical definitions and guidelines to identify any discrepancies, thereby assessing the accuracy and consistency of the translations. Qualitative data were categorised under themes including ambiguity in the source terms, variations in translator expertise, and cultural influences affecting translation. This thematic categorisation of the responses showcases the key factors contributing to terminological inconsistencies and the challenges encountered during the translation of medical terms across different specialties.
3.4. Quantitative part
In the quantitative segment of this study, open-ended survey responses were collected from 50 medical translators and 50 healthcare professionals, including doctors and nurses, to gather detailed feedback on the frequency and impact of translation errors encountered in practice, as well as perceptions of inconsistencies in medical terminology. The survey population comprised medical translators, doctors, and nurses who regularly
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interact with medical texts. The surveys were conducted online using Google Forms and included two main sections: demographic information and open-ended questions concerning the perceptions of translators, doctors, and nurses regarding inconsistencies in English medical translation.
To ensure the validity of the survey items, they were reviewed by a panel of three experts in health science and translation studies, with their feedback incorporated accordingly. Responses to these open-ended questions were qualitatively analysed to identify common themes and patterns concerning the prevalence of translation errors and their consequences for patient care.
The analysis involved theme-coding of responses concerning different types of errors, their impact on clinical outcomes, and the effectiveness of translation processes and tools. This thematic analysis provided a comprehensive view of the extent of translation errors, their implications for healthcare delivery, and opinions on the effectiveness of current practices.
These results were integrated with the qualitative analysis of translated terms to provide a broader overview of the challenges associated with medical translation and the efficacy of translation procedures.
4. STUDY RESULTS
4.1. Qualitative analysis
This section qualitatively analyses the translation of medical terms from English into Arabic.
(1) Abdominal Pain
Abdominal pain is a feeling of discomfort either in the upper, middle, or lower part of the abdominal cavity of an individual's body, which is the area between the ribs and pelvis (Willey & Collison, 2015). Abdominal pain can always be referred to as stomach pain or stomach ache, even though it does not always point toward a stomach problem. The three translations for abdom inal pain in Arabic are as follows: .¿k^ i .¿lj i i oLj_ii ^ The first and second translators used literal translation, conveying the term's sense. The second translation identifies the location of the pain within the abdomen. For the third translation, the translator used an adaptation strategy in choosing the word colic or cramping pain. The term is culturally familiar and most generally used to explain abdominal discomfort that feels like cramping. It is, therefore, suitable for non-clinical use, though not very precise for general medical use. For clinical precision and general applicability, ¿,k. ii i ^ would be more fittingly translated into Arabic as abdominal pain.
(2) Acute Myocardial Infarction - iL-^ «ui^ i iki^uji iujj
Jill
Acute myocardial infarction, otherwise known as a heart attack, is an injury to or death of part of the muscle tissue of the heart when the blood supply to that area is blocked for a long time (Reed et al., 2017). The Arabic acronym AMI may be translated as 11 <i.a <• «i.w -j (ihtisha' adalat al-qalb), <,¡.1 » ? (jiltah qalbiyyah), and ^ju (nawbah qalbiyyah), each designating different methodologies and differing degrees of specificity.
Indeed, i «lüj is literally translatable to mean infarction of the heart muscle and is used extensively in medical literature due to its precision. While this, the term » ? heart clot is a nontechnical expression that brings into the foreground the main cause. It may be used mainly for health promotion purposes. The very common term used in relation to heart problems is <ni i heart attack, especially when one is talking about general health matters and when communicating with patients. Accordingly, jij i <i.a <• «lü.^1 is the most technical and the one used most by medical professionals, while í^jí is the least technical and easiest to be understood by all, with i » < k i ? somewhere midway.
(3) Cataract — C/juli ^Uuji. ^Lk. i /jl-uj1/jaijv '
Cataract is the clouding of the lens in the eye, resulting in vision loss, which is age-related (Ang & Afshari, 2021). Cataract can be translated into Arabic as c^y-J i f ll^i (i tam adasat al-ayn), jlji (al-sad), and j^v 1 «lu (al-ma' al-abyad). The names all vary depending on the translation strategy and technical level applied. The term i ^j-c. f llcI has been considered much more literal and medically translated to mean clouding of the lens of the eye. Due to the precision involved, it is mainly used in many professional medical settings. On the other hand, jUi is more precise and technical; it is also very much accepted in medical literature and clinical practice and, hence, largely in use among health practitioners. jA^'v 1 «ni literally translates to white water, which is the colloquial term for cataract. The term is very well known to the public and, hence, best conveys the appearance of an eye affected by cataracts, even though it is not used among professionals. Thus, i íl^j-c f li-d and jL^ji are the most used appellations within the medical fields since they are more accurate and more accepted, whereas ja, .vi ,l_li will be the least technical and most used in vernacular language for easier comprehension by the public.
(4) Computed Tomography (CT) Scan -j^^u i Ai>wí i i í»-íV i
^JJjj^J. I « L'jl I JJJ. --"II /¡SjjíiJ.I - a.l~H
Computed tomography, commonly known as a CT scan, is a technique of medical imaging that uses X-rays to measure transmission values obtained at many different angles. A computer then reconstructs these to generate detailed cross-sectional photographs of many body parts. The Arabic translation of that sentence may alter in keeping with the translation approaches used and levels of detail intended. The term may be translated as ¿^J. I ^JtJsLL I j-y^aüJ i (very specific) (less specific but more commonly used), or<.¡»i^ i i <» .t.vi (very commonly used but less technically accurate). Computed tomography, or simply CT, is a very accurate imaging modality that is often used in formal medical publications and professional settings. It is the technique used to get highly accurate cross-sectional pictures of the body using computers. Axial tomography imaging is another exact and technical wording for ^í.i-, 11 11 ís jLi^—ii. Due to the clarity and accuracy involved, this type of imaging has been thoroughly used in medical fields. Computed tomography is a more general term referring to the method rather than the actual technology used to acquire the image
by Zakaryia Almahasees and Islam Husienat
(Smith-Bindman, 2009). Although considered the least technically demanding term, it is still generally understood by professionals and persons alike, instead of using the and ls^ i .¿¡aj i jjj^^ui terms, a commonly used alternative.
(5) Dementia - -i iaoji/s jSijo i .jijii
Dementia is a general term for neurological diseases characteristically progressive in nature, usually chronic, and causing cognitive impairments to such a degree as to interfere with daily life (Mendez & Cummings, 2003). Translations of dementia in
Arabic may be selected from _i_ti (al-kharaf), meaning old age;
cuji (al- atah); or even s^-Siui ¿,ijii (fuqdan al-dhakirah), meaning loss of memory, each of them representing another set of translation techniques and different terminological levels of sophistication. is the closest and most technical translation, which fully replicates the medical terminus for dementia and is most generally used among professionals in a medical environment. <cu_ii - while archaic, meaning imbecility - may no longer be in common use in a medical context, but it is still recognisable to some people. ;jSuji ¿,ijii literally means amnesia, a term describing the symptom rather than the illness itself and thus forming the least correct term. Although s_,.<;ijji ¿Lis is well-known to the general population, it is rarely used among professionals because it does not precisely cover all that dementia encompasses. Consequently, -i >ji is the most precise and most used in medical contexts, i is little used but it is known, and i u i ¿, i ¿¡Li is the least technical, largely used in non-expert conversations.
(6) Dermatitis - jLJi vi^ui /jLji ^lwl^vi
Dermatitis is the general term for inflammation of the skin, characterised by itchy, red, and swollen patches. The term dermatitis can be translated literally into Arabic as ji_=j i v-.l^i—ti (ilti-hab al-jild), j1_=ji i^u,^ (hasasiyyat al-jild), or (al-akzima).
Each of these translations uses a different approach and many
details. The most accurate translation is jL_=j i _11, which means
inflammation of the skin. This is the term most used in professional medical contexts because it is highly accurate. jL=j i vU^1 is a term that translates as allergy of the skin, but it means a certain kind of reaction of the skin. It does not have much use in medical settings because it doesn't relate to all kinds of dermatitis. The Arabic word for eczema refers to a type of severe dermatitis that most people understand. However, it's not quite right when talking about eczema in general. In medical settings, ii ^n ii is the most exact and commonly used term, is also common
but not as accurate, and jL=j i i^u,^ is the least used professional term and more of a common person's term.
(7) Immunisation
People strengthen their immune systems against a drug (called an immunogen) through immunisation (WHO, 2015). There are three ways to translate the word immunisation into Arabic: ^ ~ ~, and ciu. Each one uses a different set of rules and levels of detail. The most direct and complete translation is c/,'^^ ', which means immunisation or fortification. This word is often used in medical texts and professional settings because it means many things. The word ¿/^i which means vaccination, refers to the act of giving a vaccine. It is highly utilised in various
discourses, be they medical or health related. The term vaccine denotes a substance employed to provide immunisation against infectious diseases. This very term is largely applied and used both at professional and everyday levels. However, compared with cii_i, it is not as broad when it means designating the whole process of vaccination. Therefore, ~ is the most proper medical term and the most frequently used one. Also common, but a bit more specialised, is ^.i-, ~. Then there's c £-4 which is the least exact but still widely understood.
(8) Leukaemia - fj i ¿il^/l^i]i /f.J i
Leukaemia is a type of cancer mainly affecting blood and bone marrow tissues and characterised by a great increase in abnormal white cells (WHO, 2015). Arabic names for leukaemia are f j—i i ¿¡i—taj_ ^, literally cancer of the blood; Loj—j—i , which is a loanword; andfxi i i, meaning blood leukaemia. i literally means blood cancer, giving the clearest and most general description of the disease, so the term is broadly used in the medical context for the sake of simplicity. Finally, l^jLii is a very easy transliteration of the English designation for the same sickness, leukaemia, which is also widely used in professional and academic circles for precision. The wordfj_i i,.iliterally means whitening of the blood, which is a rather more descriptive term, but little used in everyday medical terminology. Of these, Lu-SjLii is the most accurate and frequently encountered designation in medical literature, and fj_i i ¿L-Lj-^ is also very common and well-understood because of the transparent reference to malignancy. The least common of the three in professional usage isfjJ i i, but it is still well-known among the public.
(9) Pain management - ¿ti i s_,ij j /¿ti i ^ /¿to 1
Pain management is a multidisciplinary approach to alleviate or control pain, usually with medications, therapies, and some techniques to improve the quality of life for those who have chronic or acute pain (Polomano et al., 2008). In Arabic, pain management could be rendered as f—fv i s_,iji (idarat al-alam), fjv i j-í-jj^ (tadbir al-alam), and f-iv i eiu. ( ilaj al-alam). While these three renderings may not have very glaring translation strategy differences or nuances in meaning, there are minute differences between choices. Non-Arabic f—ivi s_,iji literally means pain management, a term which is probably the most comprehensive, as it envelops within it the whole process from assessment to interventions, hence probably the most common in medical contexts. t-ti i .^.u, if translated literally, means pain handling, but in meaning, it refers to pain control, and also puts stress on the strategies and techniques by which pain will be handled and is thus well spread in professional use, a little less than ¿tii s_,iji, for it implies a narrower scope. f—ft/i ¡tíL-c literally means pain treatment, thereby targeting more the therapy itself and what is done to relieve the pain. Therefore, this is the least encompassing of all the terms and thus less in use when referring to holistic pain management, but it is still applied where treatment methodologies are being addressed. Thus, fJV i s_,iji is the most accurate and commonly used term in medical literature, ¿Si i jí-ij-i has moderate use with emphasis on strategies pertaining to control, and fJV i eiu is least comprehensive but still pertinent in treatment-focused contexts.
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(10) Septicaemia -
Septicaemia, or blood poisoning, is a grave medical condition wherein pathogenic organisms or their toxins invade the general circulation and cause a systemic pyogenic reaction. Translations for septicaemia into Arabic are fj_ii (taluuth al-dam), ¿,tM (intan damawi), and fj_ii r.„ ~ (tasmum al-dam), showing differences in translation techniques and degrees of specialisation. fj_ii ¿.ji-; literally means blood contamination, and it is the simplest term used to refer to this disorder in medicine because of the relative ease of defining the condition of the blood. The term used for blood infection for the same, isj—^j ¿ll-ji, is also common in use and understanding in medicine, focusing on the infectious nature of the disease. f jJi literally means blood poisoning, a term that, however, puts an emphasis on the toxic action of pathogens in blood. It designates the most serious forms of septicaemia but is very little used in medical texts in comparison with other proposed terms.
The next quantitative analysis is divided into two parts. The first part emphasises the key information gathered through an open-ended survey distributed to medical translators, focusing on the inconsistencies in translating English medical terms into Arabic. The second part comprises open-ended questions aimed at understanding doctors' and nurses' perceptions of the inconsistencies in medical terms.
4.2. Quantitative analysis
4.2.1. Medical translators' perceptions
The initial statement aimed to gather information about the respondents' educational levels. The translators displayed a high diversity in professional experience. Notably, 20% of the respondents had 2-5 years of work experience, indicating that even relatively new professionals were well represented. The largest group, comprising 40%, consisted of translators with 6-10 years of experience, blending fresh insights with practical skills. Additionally, 26% had 11-15 years of experience, and 15% boasted over 15 years - a clear marker of a significant representation of highly experienced translators who contributed depth and expertise to their work.
The second set of data pertained to years of experience. The age distribution among the translators was balanced, with 25% aged between 20 and 30 years, likely introducing innovative ideas from younger professionals. The largest proportion, 35%, fell within the 31 to 40 age range, indicative of a mature and seasoned workforce. Moreover, 25% were between the ages of 41 and 50, while 15% were over 50, representing a mix of mid-career and senior professionals who added stability and extensive experience to translation projects.
The third question addressed the age of the study's respondents. The age distribution was well-spread: 25% were between 20 and 30 years old, likely reflecting the vitality of younger professionals. The largest group, at 35%, ranged from 31 to 40 years, suggesting an experienced workforce. Those aged 41 to 50 years accounted for 25%, and those over 51 comprised 15%, together demonstrating a robust mix of mid-career
and senior professionals who contributed substantial stability and expertise to translation-related endeavours (Table 1). The demographics is indicative of a heterogeneous and experienced group of medical translators. With their sound educational backgrounds, different levels of experience in the profession, balanced distribution by age, and bilingual proficiency, this workforce is strong, capable, and poised to undertake any medical translation problem or task related to terminological consistency.
The survey was distributed to 50 translators. They were asked four questions regarding the challenges and terminological inconsistency in rendering English medical terms into Arabic.
Question 1. What are the most common challenges in rendering medical terms from English into Arabic?
Fifty medical translators responded to the questionnaire, whose comments indicated that there were a few major challenges in the field of medical translation. The first is understanding the complex medical terminologies. Many translators reported that medical texts use highly specialised terms/jargon. It was noticed that even a slight mistake in understanding such terminologies could cause serious inaccuracy in the translated text, which could affect patient care/safety. Therefore, the translators highlighted that learning and constantly consulting credible medical resources is important to enhance knowledge and ensure translation accuracy.
The translators also commented on the great difficulty that preserving accuracy and consistency poses. Since medical information is important, translators must ensure that what they offer is accurate and consistent throughout the article. The challenge is heightened in cases where there are large volumes of text or when several translators work on the same translation. Many respondents mentioned translation memory tools and glossaries as a method for guaranteeing consistency. It's only as good as what you make it, respondents pointed out, adding that these tools require constant careful proofing to avoid letting an error or inconsistency slip through.
A third major challenge was the rise of cultural differences and localisation. Medical translators must show respect toward the cultural backgrounds of both the source and target languages so that the translation is culturally appropriate and easily understood by the target audience. This challenge transcends linguistic translation to include cultural norms, healthcare practices, and patient expectations that differ across geographical regions. They also shared situations where cultural subtleties played a significant role in translation. Therefore, proper research is essential, and consultation with cultural experts will help ensure translations are both properly executed and culturally relevant.
As reported by the respondents, the last challenges on this list were time constraints and deadlines, which are yet other constant challenges in medical translation practice. Since most medical material is time-critical, translators must work within very tight time constraints, which can adversely affect the quality of work delivered. Several respondents pointed out that balancing the stipulated timelines with the expected accuracy was challenging, as hastened translations may lead to errors. They
by Zakaryia Almahasees and Islam Husienat
Table 1
Demographic information
CATEGORY ITEM PERCENTAGE
.. Bachelor 50% Education
Master 40%
Doctorate
Years of experience 05
6-10
11-15 26%
16 and above 25%
Age
20-30 31-40 41-50 50 and above
25% 35% 25% 15%
further added that realistic timelines should be set, and efficient time management implemented to ensure top-quality translations. Moreover, it is also necessary to stay up to date with the latest developments in medical knowledge because medical science is an ever-evolving field. If translators are unaware of the latest developments and specialised terminology used in their field, they cannot provide accurate and current translations, making their task further challenging.
Question 2. How do you address the challenges mentioned in the previous question?
After identifying common problems that medical translators face, we asked the 50 respondents: 'How do you effectively handle and manage medical translation problems that arise during your practice?' The responses helped outline their strategies and solutions to overcome these issues. The most common solution for addressing difficulties in understanding complex medical terminologies is continuous professional development. Many translators regularly attend specialist medical translation seminars, webinars, and conferences to stay up to date. A personal library with medical dictionaries, textbooks, and access to internet medical databases has been regarded as very useful by many translators. Several also commented that establishing relationships with health professionals and other translators was incredibly helpful for consulting on difficult terminology and concepts.
Dealing with cultural differences and localisation requires extensive study and a deep understanding of the target population. This approach was supported by some respondents who mentioned they had conducted several studies of health practices and the cultures of the areas for which they translate. Other translators frequently liaise with cultural consultants or local experts to ensure their translations are culturally appropriate. Many translators also emphasise the importance of being sensitive and flexible, being aware of cultural differences, and ensuring their translations are correct, polite, and useful for the target group.
It has been reported that significant research is conducted into healthcare practices and cultures for translation purposes. Some translators collaborate closely with cultural consultants or local experts to ensure translations are culturally appropriate. Moreover, many translators stress that sensitivity and flexibility are crucial in order to accommodate cultural differences, ensuring that translations are appropriate, polite, and useful to the target audience.
Regarding time constraints and deadlines, the key factors are effective timing and time management. Translators spoke about strategic planning and how they manage the dilemma of speed versus quality by dividing large projects into manageable smaller parts and using project management tools to keep track of progress. Many noted that it is also important to communicate with clients about realistic deadlines and how rushed work might affect quality.
As for keeping up with updates in medical knowledge, translators typically subscribe to medical journals, participate in continuous education programmes, and join professional associations to stay informed about the latest developments in medical knowledge. This ongoing training enables them to consistently update themselves and provide the most current medical information in their translations.
Question 3. What advice would you give to new translators entering the field of English-Arabic medical translation?
The respondents felt that the problems associated with medical language must be addressed in multiple ways. Most interpreters refresh their skills to handle the challenge of medical terminologies. Many attend workshops, webinars and conferences focused exclusively on medical translation. They continuously refresh their skills to stay up to date with new terminologies and concepts in medicine. Another common practice is to create and maintain a personal library of medical dictionaries and texts, and access reliable online databases. It is also useful to establish a network of medical professionals and translators to
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create an environment for discussion and feedback on complex terms and concepts, thus enabling them to ensure the accuracy of their translations.
Other central tasks for translators include maintaining accuracy and consistency. Translators accomplish this through technological aids as well as collaborative efforts. Most use terminology management software and translation memory systems to ensure that words and expressions are used consistently in all their documents. Thorough style guides and glossaries for each new project or client ensure continuity. Peer review and quality checks are prime concerns for translators. Many of them team up to review each other's work, which improves accuracy and ensures that potential mistakes can be identified and rectified, ensuring high-quality outputs.
Dealing with cultural differences and localisation requires time to research and understand the culture of the people you intend to reach. Translators take time to learn about the health and cultural practices of the areas for which they are translating. It is common to work with a cultural consultant or other local experts on the ground to ensure that translations are appropriate for the culture and useful. Translators should be sensitive and, at the same time, flexible because they have to navigate intercultural differences to ensure their translations are polite and correct. Managing time effectively to meet deadlines without compromising quality is crucial. Methods applied by translators include breaking down projects into tasks that are easily manageable by setting goals for each and using management tools that keep track of progress. Educating clients about realistic deadlines and the impact of rushed work on quality becomes essential. To provide the latest and most accurate translations, translators engage in medical updates through professional organisations, continuing education programmes, and subscriptions to medical journals.
4,2,2, Perceptions of doctors and nurses
Fifty doctors and nurses responded to the questionnaire, and their demographic information was fully captured to reflect their backgrounds. Of these participants, 60% were doctors, while 40% were nurses. This ensured that the survey balanced the opinions between top healthcare decision-makers and frontline healthcare providers. Physicians made up a large part of the group, likely because they are key actors in making medical decisions and addressing issues related to translation.
Regarding the number of years of experience, the respondents covered a very wide range. The largest group was represented by individuals with six to ten years of experience, accounting for 30%. This group of people with at least a medium-to-high level of experience noted that many respondents were well aware of the problems that arise when translating medical texts. 20% of the respondents, who were veterinarians, had zero to five years of experience, indicating that these issues were relevant to professionals newly entering the field and demonstrating that these problems are common across all stages of their careers. On the other hand, 10% of those with over twenty years
of experience provided perspectives seasoned by time and ensured that the findings were based on extensive clinical practice. Differences in experience levels increased the utility of the data by providing a comprehensive range of opinions on the challenges in medical translation.
The specialties of the respondents included almost all the important fields of medicine. The greatest number of responses came from General Medicine and Cardiology, each contributing 20% of the total. Surgery followed with 16% of the respondents, then Emergency Medicine with 18%, and Obstetrics and Gynaecology with 14%. Although slightly lower at 12%, Paediatrics still represented a significant area of concern (Table 2).
Translation mistakes have been noted to cut across a wide spectrum of medical fields, with breakdown indicating that precise and standardised language in medicine is still crucial across all fields, even when specialised. The wide span of specialisations involved in translation issues underlines the side effects of their reach, showing that solutions must be deep and adaptable to various medical settings.
Question 1. How often do you encounter inconsistencies in the translated English medical terms into Arabic in your practice?
A significant portion of the medical professionals who responded to the questionnaire reported that they often encountered discrepancies when translating medical terminology from English into Arabic. Of the 30 doctors who responded, 50% reported encountering inconsistencies quite frequently, 30% frequently, and 20% infrequently. Consequently, a substantial 80% of the doctors frequently faced problems with translation inconsistencies. Among the 20 nurses who participated, 40% indicated that they experienced inconsistencies frequently, 35% regularly, and 25% occasionally. Therefore, the data revealed that 75% of the nurses frequently encounter this issue. Thus, translation inconsistencies represent a common challenge for both nurses and doctors, potentially impacting their ability to communicate effectively and deliver quality healthcare services.
Question 2. How do these inconsistencies impact patient care and communication within your team?
The impact of translation errors on patient care and team communication is significant. Responses from doctors revealed that 60% of those surveyed reported that these discrepancies significantly affected patient treatment and team communication. Additionally, 30% noted a moderate impact, while 10% observed a minimal effect. Nurses also reported concerning results: 50% stated that translation errors had a substantial effect, 35% indicated a moderate effect, and 15% reported a minor impact. These responses illustrate that translation errors can lead to misunderstandings, compromised patient care, and ineffective communication among healthcare workers. Both doctors and nurses emphasized the critical importance of clarity and accuracy in medical terminology for effective treatment and patient safety.
Question 3. Can you provide examples of specific medical terms that are frequently mistranslated or inconsistently translated into Arabic?
by Zakaryia Almahasees and Islam Husienat
Table 2
Demographic information
QUESTION NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS PERCENTAGE
Profession Doctor Nurse 30 20 60% 40%
Years of Experience 0-5 6-10 10 15 20% 30%
11-15 12 24%
16-20 8 16%
20 + 5 10%
Specialisation/Department General Medicine Surgery 10 8 20% 16%
Paediatrics 6 12%
Obstetrics and Gynaecology 7 14%
Cardiology 10 20%
Emergency Medicine 9 18%
Respondents provided numerous examples of medical terms frequently mistranslated into Arabic. Thus, hypertension is often incorrectly translated as a general term for blood pressure rather than as the specific medical condition it denotes. Similarly, myocardial infarction is frequently mistranslated, leading to confusion between heart problems and heart attacks. The term cerebrovascular accident is also translated inconsistently, leading to significant misunderstandings in critical situations. Nurses noted that terms like diabetes mellitus are sometimes confused with more general terms for blood sugar issues. These examples showcase the extensive inconsistencies in translating complex medical conditions and point to the need for precise and accurate translations to ensure proper diagnosis and treatment.
Question 4. How do you typically address these inconsistencies when they arise in your practice?
Many doctors and nurses reported using various methods to manage these discrepancies. 40% of the doctors mentioned that they rely on continuous training and education, frequently attending workshops or seminars on medical translation. Another 30% utilise medical dictionaries and translation equipment to look up similar terms. Additionally, 20% of doctors collaborate closely with bilingual colleagues or medical translators to ensure accuracy. Similarly, nurses are committed to further learning; 35% participated in specialised training classes. Another 40% use translation tools and libraries, while 25% consult with experts and peers. Participants from both groups emphasised the necessity for their departments to develop and maintain up-to-date, comprehensive glossaries and lists of standardised terms to ensure certainty and consistency.
Question 5. What steps can be taken to improve the consistency and accuracy of English-Arabic medical term translation?
Respondents offered several suggestions for standardising and improving the accuracy of medical term translations. 60% of doctors believed that medical glossaries and terminologies
should be standardised for use across all health centres. They also advocated regular training programmes to keep healthcare workers updated on language standards. Additionally, half of the nurses who responded indicated that translation databases and tools should be centralised and made easily accessible. Furthermore, 40% of doctors and 45% of nurses suggested that medical workers and professional translators should collaborate to ensure translations are accurate and contextually appropriate. Another recommendation was to integrate advanced translation software into medical records systems to facilitate real-time translations.
Question 6. Do you have additional comments or suggestions regarding translating medical terms?
Others shared a variety of alternative considerations and suggestions. Physicians emphasised the need for physician involvement in the translation process to ensure that terminologies are accurate and relevant in the medical context. It was also suggested that health organisations invest in language services and tools to support their staff. Nurses indicated that translators and medical personnel should maintain ongoing communication to enhance the accuracy of translations and promptly resolve emerging issues. Both groups stressed the importance of cultural competence in translation, noting that understanding cultural differences can significantly enhance the effectiveness of medical communication. Respondents advocated for a more systematic approach to medical translation, utilising technology and expert knowledge to improve the quality of healthcare.
5. DISCUSSION
The questionnaires completed by medical translators, doctors, and nurses, along with the ten specific instances of translation inconsistencies, expose significant challenges in this field of translation. One major issue is the complexity of medical terminology, with 60% of medical translators recognising the need for
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ongoing professional development to keep pace with the evolving medical language. This finding supports literature that advocates specialised training and continuous education for translators working in medical settings, aligning with Mankoff et al.'s (2004) study. Medical translators must continually update their knowledge to ensure its relevance and applicability.
Medical translations require high levels of accuracy and consistency for effective healthcare implementation. As Fischbach (1998) notes, ensuring accuracy and consistency in medical translations is crucial. According to the respondents, the challenges associated with medical language need to be addressed in multiple ways. Through ongoing training, they keep abreast of the latest medical terminologies and concepts. Another common practice is to have their own libraries of medical terms, often coupled with networking with other medical professionals and translators, which proves invaluable in discussing and receiving feedback on complex terms and concepts, thereby enhancing the accuracy of their translations.
Medical translations must be executed with high levels of accuracy and consistency to be effectively implemented in healthcare. The reliance on translation memory systems and terminology management software by medical translators and health professionals is significant in addressing inconsistencies. Several studies have recognised these tools as a means to achieve terminological consistency and enhance the quality of translation. Furthermore, 40% of doctors and nurses reported using similar tools and engaging in joint quality assurance procedures, indicating a shared responsibility in providing accurate translations. Such collaboration between translators and medical staff is crucial, improving the reliability of transmitted medical information by minimizing potential errors.
Cultural differences and localization issues present significant challenges for medical translators. According to the survey results, some medical terms and concepts do not directly translate into Arabic and often require careful adaptation to ensure cultural appropriateness and patient understanding. This is critical for cultural sensitivity, as the perceptions and acceptance of medical information by patients are crucial. Previous literature emphasises the need for medical translation to be culturally competent, focusing how cultural nuances impact communication at every step (Cioffi, 2003). This suggests that making medical concepts culturally appropriate in translation can enhance patient understanding and foster trust between patients and healthcare providers.
These challenges are compounded by significant time constraints and the ongoing need to update medical knowledge. Both translators and healthcare professionals reported that tight deadlines often pressure them to balance speed with accuracy. 50% of doctors and 45% of nurses emphasised the importance of regular training and access to updated resources, underscoring the continuous need for education in this area. Previous studies corroborate this finding, arguing that ongoing professional development is essential to keep pace with the rapidly evolving medical knowledge and technology (Cioffi, 2003; Huessin et al.,
rudn.tlcjournal.org doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2024-8-3-25-40
2022; Saed et al., 2021). Both translators and healthcare providers must engage in continuous education to remain relevant and ensure they provide accurate and current medical information.
Terminological inconsistencies in scientific translation, particularly in medicine, can have detrimental effects. Medical terminology can confuse both medical personnel and patients, potentially leading to poor treatment outcomes. For example, an incident involved a Spanish-speaking patient who received a prescription with instructions incorrectly translated as 'consume every eight hours'. The correct instruction should have read, 'administer every eight hours with a meal'. Because the patient took the medication on an empty stomach, he suffered severe abdominal cramping and haemorrhaging. This translation error led to a serious adverse drug reaction that required hospitalisation (Tridindia, 2023).
Cultural differences are a significant determinant of accuracy in translations, and these often affect how medical concepts are perceived or interpreted. The article recognises the impact of this factor but lacks a detailed discussion on specific cultural barriers. For instance, some medical concepts do not have direct translations in Arabic and thus must be conveyed using culturally relevant comparisons or descriptions. Additionally, social stigmas surrounding certain diseases, such as mental health conditions, must be considered when choosing terminology to ensure patient acceptance of the diagnosis. To overcome such cultural barriers, translators should employ culturally sensitive translation strategies. This would involve consultation with cultural interpreters or bilingual health professionals who understand both medical terminology and cultural nuances. Furthermore, translation guidelines should incorporate cultural factors to ensure that terminology used in target languages is both medically accurate and culturally appropriate. Cultural competence should be a primary focus in medical translator training programmes, as it would equip translators with the skills needed to navigate cultural differences effectively.
The implications of these findings are substantial for several categories of stakeholders. Medical translators could benefit from training in focused programmes that improve translation accuracy by addressing specific challenges in areas prone to inconsistencies. Health professionals would gain from clearer and more accurate medical communication, potentially reducing mis-diagnoses and treatment errors. Ultimately, patients are the primary beneficiaries of this research, as they will receive better healthcare through improved communication among health practitioners and a more accurate understanding of their conditions and treatments. Specifically, the study puts to the forefront the need for ongoing education and specialised training to enhance the effectiveness of translation strategies and tools.
Regarding medical term translation inconsistencies - due to the complexity and specificity of the terms - this study has identified several common ones. Major reasons for translation inconsistencies largely have to do with cultural and contextual factors. According to the surveys, many health professionals frequently
by Zakaryia Almahasees and Islam Husienat
encounter translation errors, with issues regularly reported. Such errors significantly affect patient care, as they can lead to miscommunication and treatment errors. The effectiveness of current tools and strategies used by medical translators was found to be moderate, primarily involving translation software and peer reviews. Thus, continuous education and specialised training were emphasised as crucial for improving translation accuracy. This research thus has the potential to facilitate improvements in translation practices, enhance healthcare communication, and ultimately benefit patient care.
6. CONCLUSION
This study was conducted to address the issue of terminological inconsistency in translating medical terms from English to Arabic. It is anticipated that such challenges could impact the precision and efficiency of medical communication and, consequently, patient care. This involves conducting a comparative analysis of these inconsistencies across different medical fields, identifying the reasons behind these inconsistencies, and evaluating the strategies and tools medical translators use to ensure accuracy and consistency. The research questions addressed were: 1. What are the common inconsistencies observed in translating medical terms from English to Arabic, and what are the underlying reasons for these inconsistencies? 2. What are the perceptions of medical specialists (physicians and nurses) and medical translators about the terminological inconsistency from English to Arabic?
The study's results expose a broad range of challenges in translating English medical terminology into Arabic, affecting both medical translators and healthcare practitioners. Systematic translation errors pose significant risks to patient care by impacting effective communication among health professionals. These results point to the importance of continuous professional development, the use of advanced technologies for translation, and
Appendix 1
Medical translators' survey
Dear medical translators,
collaborative quality-checking mechanisms to ensure that translations are accurate and consistent. Addressing these issues requires an understanding of different cultures and a commitment to continual learning. Only then can translators develop appropriate and culturally relevant translations for the correct audience. Four strategies are recommended to increase the consistency and accuracy of medical word translations: developing standardised glossaries, centralising translation databases, increasing the use of interpretation services, and integrating translation services within healthcare systems. By addressing these issues, we can ensure a higher level of patient care by providing accurate and culturally appropriate health information to improve health outcomes.
The study has proposed actionable recommendations to effectively address the problem of terminological inconsistencies in medical translation. Initially, there is a critical need for the development of specialised software for the translation of medical documents. This software should include extensive, comprehensive, and detailed medical dictionaries and glossaries in both English and Arabic, updated and reviewed regularly by medical professionals. Additionally, the process can be further enhanced through the implementation of machine learning algorithms that automatically identify and correct common terminological errors. A multi-level review process involving medical specialists and linguistic experts will provide further assurance of quality. Another essential measure is standardisation in terminological databases accessible to all translators across every field. Further education programmes on the evolution of medicine and the current trends in translation technology are equally indispensable. These should be complemented by various seminars and conferences on specialised topics such as cultural sensitivity and state-of-the-art translation tools. Over the long term, such seminars will enable translators to develop skills in producing precise and culturally appropriate medical translations.
We are conducting a study titled A Comparative Analysis of Terminological Inconsistency in Scientific Translation from English into Arabic across Different Medical Fields. This research investigates the challenges and implications of translating medical terminologies accurately and consistently. As professionals crucial in bridging the linguistic gap in medical communication, your insights and experiences are invaluable to our study.
This survey aims to gather detailed information about the terminological inconsistencies you encounter in your translation work, the factors contributing to these inconsistencies, and the strategies you employ to address them. Your participation will help us understand the complexities of medical translation and develop recommendations for improving translation accuracy and consistency. The survey is designed to be comprehensive yet straightforward and should take approximately 15-20 minutes to complete. Your responses will be kept confidential and used solely for academic research purposes.
We greatly appreciate your time and effort in contributing to this important study. Your expertise and perspectives will significantly enhance our understanding of terminological inconsistency in medical translation and help advance the field. Thank you for your participation.
Volume 8 Issue 3, 2024, pp. 25-40
doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2024-8-3-25-40
Education
Bachelor Master Doctorate
Years of experience
6-10 11-15 16 and above
Age
20-30 31-40 41-50 50 and above
Question 1. What are the most common challenges in rendering medical terms from English into Arabic? Question 2. How do you address the challenges mentioned in the previous question?
Question 3. What advice would you give to new translators entering the field of English-Arabic medical translation? Question 4. Do you have additional comments or suggestions regarding translating medical terms?
Appendix 2
Doctors' and nurses' survey
Dear esteemed doctors and nurses,
We are conducting a study titled A Comparative Analysis of Terminological Inconsistency in Scientific Translation from English into Arabic across Different Medical Fields. This research investigates the challenges and implications of translating medical terminologies accurately and consistently. As professionals who are crucial in bridging the linguistic gap in medical communication, your insights and experiences are invaluable to our study.
The purpose of this survey is to gather detailed information about the terminological inconsistencies you encounter in your translation work, the factors contributing to these inconsistencies, and the strategies you employ to address them. Your participation will help us understand the complexities of medical translation and develop recommendations for improving translation accuracy and consistency. The survey is designed to be comprehensive yet straightforward and should take approximately 15-20 minutes to complete. Your responses will be kept confidential and used solely for academic research purposes.
We greatly appreciate your time and effort in contributing to this important study. Your expertise and perspectives will significantly enhance our understanding of terminological inconsistency in medical translation and help advance the field. Thank you for your participation.
Doctor
Profession
Nurse
Years of Experience 0 5
6-10
11-15
16-20
20 +
„ . . General Medicine
Specialisation/Department
Surgery Paediatrics Obstetrics and Gynaecology cardiology Emergency Medicine
by Zakaryia Almahasees and Islam Husienat
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Volume 8 Issue 3, 2024, pp. 25-40 doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2024-8-3-25-40
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Zakaryia Almahasees ORCID 0000-0002-4035-7165 и [email protected] Applied Science Private University, Jordan
Islam Husienat
ORCID 0000-0001-9066-5505 и [email protected] King Abdullah University Hospital, University of Science and Technology, Jordan
