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The regional blocks will be based on the chapters dedicated to individual countries, which most fully express the specificity of radical thought and practice of the modern Islamism. In the country article, in addition to scientific analysis, the author is to give information about the existing radical Islamic organizations to specify their goals and objectives, to describe their connections with religious and secular associations, not only within the country, but also abroad. The ultimate goal will be achieved, writes A. Savateev, if the author presents a forecast of the evolution of the studied radical structures.
References
1. [Islamic radical movements on the political map of the modern world: the countries of North and North-East Africa] / Edited by A.D. Savateev, E.F. Kisriev. - Moscow: Lenand, 2015.
The author of the abstract V. Schensnovich
2016.10.004. L. ALMAZOVA. REVIEW OF THE MOSLEM IDEOLOGICAL MOVEMENTS IN THE VOLGA-URAL REGION (20-21 CENTURIES) // "Bulletin of the Kalmyk Institute for Humanities Research RAS", Elista, 2014, No. 2, P. 40-46.
Keywords: Islam, neotraditionalists, reformers, modernists, the Qur'an, the Prophet Muhammad.
L. Almazova,
Ph. D., Associate Professor,
Kazan Federal University (Volga Region)
L. Almazova examines the process of modernization of Islam at the late 19 - early 20 century. The researcher notes that collision of the two worlds - the booming West and the "frozen in its medieval dreams" East - was marked for the Moslem cultural area by epoch-making changes in the field of world perception, particularly in the capitals of Islamic countries, among the
enlightened elites. In the Moslem community there are appearing various ideological directions, defining the vectors of development of society from quite different positions. Since in most cases all the issues - political, social, cultural -were viewed through the prism of religion, the basic division is defined by the determination of religious positions.
By the end of the 19 century the Moslem community featured two main forces: the conservatives (traditionalists) and the reformers. The phenomenon of traditionalism is characterized by such features as adherence to taqlid1, desire to preserve the power of Moslem scholars, predominance of medieval traditions in the field of education and unwillingness to change over time. Reformism, in turn, can be divided into the type of fundamentalist reform and that of modernist reform. The first involves the selective assimilation of Western technological and institutional achievements and bringing Islam in line with the Islam of the time of the Prophet Muhammad as it is seen by their proponents. However, by the end of 19 - beginning of 20 century the second type of reformism comes to prominence, and it may be determined by the term "modernization". If modernization is a change in the course of time of all the aspects of society, technological, scientific and institutional progress, then, accordingly, modernism is an ideology that seeks to change consciousness in accordance with the changing conditions of life. Modernist reform represented by its leaders Jamaliddin Afghani, Muhammad Abdo, Qasim Amin, and others - became the dominant trend in the early XX century.
Its characteristics were: theological justification of the idea of free will, absolutization of the role of reason, calls for renewal through ijtihad, reinstatement of woman's rights. All this was accompanied by a surge of attention to the text of the Qur'an as the primary source of decision-making and, as a consequence, increase of its role in fiqh (Islamic law). Equally important features of modernist reform are relief of the religion of prejudices and accretions of later centuries. Referring to the Tatar-Bashkir community of the late 19 - early 20 century, L. Almazova discovers
the same ideological tendencies. The stronghold of traditionalists, who did not want to change over time, was the magazine "Din va Maishat" ("Religion and life"), headed by its editor - Galimetdin Khanislamov and one of the most prolific authors Ishmi-Ishan Ishmuhametov (the latter studied in Bukhara). Among the ideas cultivated in their environment, there should be mentioned criticism of jadidism2, preservation of the Bukharan system of education, waiver of any European borrowings (theatre, tradition of holding musical evenings, studying Western and Russian languages, etc.), strict adherence to gender segregation, the apology of taqlid and the preaching of isolationism for the Moslem community in Russia. The traditionalists had their own, quite a wide audience, although it should be noted that by the beginning of the second decade of the 20 century they had significantly backwatered, which was particularly felt in the field of Moslem media and education.
A prominent role in the ideological space was also played by the adherents of modernist reforms: Musa Bigiev, Ziaeddin Kamali, Zakir Kadiri - disciples of Muhammad Abdo, who were educated in al-Azhar3. They were the most well-known public figures among the Moslem population of the interior Russia. Their interpretation of the basic Islamic concepts such as polygamy, gender segregation (hijab), Holy war (Jihad) and a number of others, very significant for understanding of the modernist type of religious reformism. They preached the same ideas of coincidence of the Quranic edicts and reason, as their foreign co-thinkers.
If the Bolshevik regime put an end to the modernist reform of Islam among the Tatars and the Bashkirs, in the foreign East its decline is associated with other historical events, especially the fall of the Ottoman Empire and the accession of Pro-Western, often purely secular regimes in Moslem States: Turkey, Iran, Egypt, Jordan, Sudan, Pakistan, and some others. While the Soviet Union fought against religion, in Moslem countries, in the hands of ProWestern bourgeoisie, there arose new ideological currents that can be considered continuation and development of the
fundamentalist reform of Ibn Abd al-Wahhab, who proclaimed the return to the "purity" of Islam at the time of the Prophet Muhammad and its purification from the non-Islamic late components. So by the time the Volga-Urals region returned to the arena of ideological processes in the Islamic Ummah, the balance of power was completely different.
The Moslem community in the Volga-Urals region over the past two decades has undergone significant changes: earlier Tatars and Bashkirs, on the wave of religious revival, completely filled up the mosques on Fridays, now the situation has changed. Besides, various factors of historical, cultural, social, economic and psychological nature brought about changes in the composition of the congregation. In Tatarstan and Bashkortostan where the level of religiosity is rather high (79-80% of "ethnic" Moslems respondents declared themselves as believers) only 4-7% are practicing Moslems. If in the middle of 1990-s parishioners the mosques were filled mostly by elderly people - aged 60 and above, now most of the worshipers are young people from 18 to 35 years. Similar trends start to occur a bit later in the composition of the Moslem clergy, which is now noticeably "younger".
Two main ideological camps formed among the Moslems at this socio-religious background: neotraditionalists, Hanafi-oriented4 supporters of the local forms of Islam, and fundamentalists / Salafists, followers of the "pure" Islam. Besides, there are other powers having less numerous supporters: representatives of liberal Islam, members of the movement "Hizmet" ("Service") founded by Fethullah Gulen, the so-called "faizrakhmanists"5, the Sufi direction "suleymanji"6. Local neotraditionalists - Hanafiyah7 - enjoy the most privileged position. Spiritual administration of Moslems (Muftiyat) and the system of professional religious education are within the sphere of their influence, the same can be said about the vast majority of parishes (except for certain areas of East Bashkortostan and oil producing districts of Tatarstan). The leaders of neotraditionalist Islam studied in either Bukhara religious school or (younger
generation) in local schools, and later underwent training at short-term (1 year) overseas courses.
The main ideologeme of neotraditionalists of Tatarstan and Bashkortostan, appealing to Russian authorities, is preservation of the local traditions of Islam, adapted to the existence of Moslems in the environment of a different confession. And since Islam has for many centuries been an instrument of preserving the national identity of the Tatars and the Bashkirs, in our days, the traditionalists also defend the use of the Tatar language as the language of the Friday sermons. The recognition of legitimacy of the adat (local customs, including those of religious nature), compliant with Sharia has made possible the functioning of many religious rites, uncharacteristic for Islam in other areas (Quranic gatherings, commemoration of the dead, pilgrimage to local Holy places). Historical relationship with the Central Asian centers of Moslem scholarship led to adoption of the Hanafi school of law and assimilation of Maturidi principles8 in the interpretation of creeds. The Tatar Islam, forced to develop in the context of constant pressure of Christian missionary work, isolation from the rest of the Moslem world, having suffered all the trials of atheistic propaganda in the Soviet period, could not, for objective reasons, maintain universalistic features. The sphere of influence of neotraditionalism covers mainly the older generation of Moslems, as well as a certain part of young people, primarily graduates from local and foreign educational institutions loyal to the older generation, who found their place in the structures of the spiritual administration of Moslems and their subordinate parishes.
Their opponents - the so-called fundamentalists / Salafites have their own point of view on some religious issues. In general, the local fundamentalist / Salafi discourse is quite universal: the idea of the return to the purity of Islam of the first centuries, respectively, interpretation of the divine attributes in the spirit of the provisions of Ibn Taimiya, condemnation of innovations in the field of religion (visiting of "Holy places", celebration of mawlids9, etc.), negative attitude to Sufism and Kalam10, adherence to the
language of interethnic communication in the course of a sermon (in the Russian context the Russian language). A significant part of fundamentalists / Salafites are quite loyal to the authorities, but the society has not develop unambiguous attitude to this part of the adherents of "pure" Islam, which may be seen from the actions of the official Moslem clergy. They are sometimes denied the right to directs mosques: for example, Shaukat Abubakirov was removed from the management of the community mosque Anilar in Kazan, Ishmurat Khaybullin was forced to leave the post of the Imam of the mosque Falaq in Ufa, they meet problems applying for job. The sphere of influence of this movement encompasses, first of all, young people, emigrants from Moslem republics of the CIS and non-CIS countries, which are not used to the local version of Islam. Moslem converts from among the Russians and other historically non-Moslem peoples also often choose the Salafi version of Islam, where worshipping is, as a rule, in Russian.
One more trend, which was essential for formation of religious discussions, especially in the early 2000-s, is presented by the liberal Islam. However, says the researcher, the influence of liberal Islam in Moslem community is actually irrelevant. Thus, the trends of the Islamic community development in the Volga-Ural region are very similar to the global processes. In the beginning of the 20 century the reformation modernism was the most influential group opposing the official traditionalism, but in the early 21 century a considerable part of believers in the region turns to fundamentalism / Salafism in its more or less moderate form. In the Volga-Ural region during the two studied periods the state religious policy in relation to Islam is characterized by a pronounced line of succession, being armed with all the same goals, allies and forms of combating undesirable elements. In the 20 century, as well as in the early 21 century, the government is interested in control over the situation, which is ensured, on the one hand, by law enforcement agencies, and on the other hand by the Spiritual Administration of the Moslems as the official structure of the Moslem clergy. Both in the past century
and now the state relies on the traditional supporters of preservation of local forms of Islam. However, the state support does not provide popularity and credibility among ordinary Moslems to adherents of local neotraditionalism. Despite the fact that all the controls and power were in the beginning of 20 century and are now in the hands of the traditionalists, their ideological competitors have certain advantages. Opposition from the part of the authorities and their ideological independence gives them a certain moral advantage. In the beginning of the 20 century reformers-modernists were opponents to traditionalist modernists, and now various fundamentalist leaders are playing this part. Neotraditionalism is still retaining control over the Moslem community only due to persecution of not officially recognized Moslem leaders and their supporters. The events of July 2012 -assassination of the deputy mufti Waliullah Yakupov, the most prominent leader of the modern Tatar neotraditionalism, and the attempted assassination of the mufti Ildus Fayzov are the evidence of serious miscalculations in the field of the state religious policy and the need for its revision. As stressed by L. Almazova, a more differentiated approach to the dissenters in the field of religion is needed, as well as support of a variety of forces, providing information space for expression of a spectrum of opinions to the movements which are in the field of the Russian law.
The author of the abstract - V. Schensnovich
References
1 The principle of taqlid - following opinions of Moslem scholars (ulama) in dealing with controversial issues - is opposed to the principle of ijtihad - the independent judgment based on provisions of the Quran and the Sunnah (the collection of statements and a statement of the acts of the Prophet Muhammad).
2 Jadidism - the phenomenon of the reform of religious education among Moslems of the Russian Empire (late XIX - early XX century).
3 The University of al-Azhar - the most authoritative school in the Islamic world, opened in 988, in Cairo (Egypt).
4 The Hanafi school - one of the four legal schools of Sunni Islam.
Faizrakhmanists - supporters of Faizrakhman Sattarov, the founder of an
Islamic sect not recognized by Moslem official structures.
Suleymanji - supporters of the Turkish preacher Suleyman Hilmi of Tunahan.
The official website of the Spiritual Administration of Moslems of Tatarstan
(hereinafter DUM RT) specifically provides that "DUM of RT" conducts
religious policy in accordance with the legal school of "Abu Hanifa"
[www.dumrt.ru].
Maturidism - one of the directions in the interpretation of the Muslim dogma distinguished by a high confidence to reason in seeking solutions to religious issues and the concept of free will (Ikhtiyar). Mawlid - the birthday of the Prophet Muhammad. Kalam - religious scholastic philosophy of Islam.
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