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профессионального образования и несогласованным развитием рынка труда и образовательных услуг.
Экономические и социальные изменения, происходящие в украинском обществе, формирование инновационной направленности экономики, интеграция в мировое экономическое пространство ставят перед системой высшего образования государства новые приоритеты и задачи, в числе кото-
рых наиболее актуальной является качество подготовки специалистов. Актуальность этой проблемы повышается в связи с новой парадигмой обеспечения конкурентоспособности государства, согласно которой экономический рост и конкурентоспособность все в большей степени определяется «экономикой знаний» и в меньшей степени «экономикой производства».
Список литературы:
1. Качество высшего образования: монография; под ред. М. П. Карпенко. - М.: Изд-во СГУ 2012. - 291 с.
2. Мониторинг студентов и выпускников вуза как инструмент системы управления востребованностью молодых специалистов на рынке труда: монография; под ред. проф. М. А. Боровской. - Таганрог: Изд-во ТТИ ЮФУ 2008. - 336 с.
3. Болонський процес: перспективи i розвиток у контекст штеграцн Украши в европейський проспр вищо! освгги: монографiя/За ред. В. М. Бебика. - К.: МАУП, 2004. - 200 с.
4. Матрос Д. Ш. Управление качеством образования на основе новых информационных технологий и образовательного мониторинга/Д. Ш. Матрос, Д. М. Полев, Н. Н. Мельникова. - М.: Пед. общество России, 2001. -128 с.
Linkov Alexander Yordanov, University of Plovdiv “Paisii Hilendarski”, Bulgaria Senior Assistant Professor PhD, The Faculty of Pedagogy
E-mail: starcom2@abv.bg
Learning in the Field of Problem-Based Training
Abstract: The semantics of the construct “problem" leads to more than 10 possible meanings, each clarifying it within certain lexical (semiotic) limits. The connection between problem-based training and the main principles of constructivist educational paradigm is theoretically productive.
Key words: problem solving, problem-based training, “problemacity”.
Under the conditions of a developing modern pedagogical practice, a dialectical attitude emerges with a particular force — it plays a key role when clarifying the interrelation between “learning through solving problems” and the place of a learning situation, as a rather dynamic relation of the reflection of this attitude.
Scholars of Plamen Radev’s calibre think that the semantics of the construct “problem” leads to more than 10 possible meanings, each clarifying it within certain lexical (semiotic) limits.
For the purposes of interpretation, which the article serves, several levels of analysis and classification of the term “problem” are of importance. Chronologically, they could be presented as follows:
1. A question whose answer cannot be achieved and solved with the help of available knowledge;
2. Sign reflection of the problem situation;
3. A set of particularly difficult tasks;
4. A situation in which some of the components available are known — it is necessary to determine the additional components [14, 276].
The structure of a learning problem is determined by the structure of the problem situation, but it is not isolated [14, 393].
The famous Polish scholar V. Okon, in his book “Problem Training Fundamentals”, shares the opinion that the more students strive to take the way of exploration in the course of their personal training, the more effective it will be.
Numerous Russian authors such as T. V. Kudryatsev, A. M. Matyushkin, Z. I. Kalmikova, in their works, have achieved a systematic level of methodological and psychological justification of problem-based training in its various modifications [16].
A learning problem can be transformed into a peculiar sign reflection of a given problem situation
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within the limits of a specific school lesson — as a task from various cultural and educational spheres, whose solution students experience a shortage of knowledge and abilities to find, having to look for more resources within the scope of their competences [14, 278].
According to M. I. Mahmutov, problem-based training cannot replace training as a whole, but without the presence ofproblems, the latter cannot develop. He defines the interpretation of this so significant a pedagogical fact in the following way: ‘The problem type of training does not solve all educational and educative tasks, hence it cannot replace the system of training which involves different types, methods and forms of organisation of the educational and educative process. On the other hand, the common system of training cannot develop without problem-based training, whose basis appears to be the system of problem situations’ [9, 265].
V A. Krutetski is even more adamant in believing that the problem method should not turn into a peculiar universal method of training. ‘To some students, who have not acquired the habits of independent thinking yet, it is to a certain degree difficult (although many of the students could be largely successful because of it in the process of training experimentation, for example). However, its implementation in educational practice requires considerably more time than the implementation of traditional information and communication methods. The loss of time in the first stages of introduction of the problem method is compensated afterwards, when the thinking of students has developed significantly’ [7,
p.186].
Problem-based training was a priority as long ago as in John Dewey’s works, when he developed his classic research method into a conceptual form, which subsequently evolved very fast in the works of
S. L. Rubinstein, D. N. Bogoyavlenski, N. A. Menchinska and A. M. Matiyushkin. It found its natural continuation in the research strategies of T. V. Kudryatsev, D. V. Vilkeev, Y. K. Babanski, M. I. Mahmutov and I. Y. Lerner.
V A. Sitarov puts forward the thesis that problem-based training, irrespective of the time it is analysed, has numerous advantages to traditional training, which are generally as follows:
1. It helps students learn logically, scientifically, dialectically and creatively;
2. It makes the learning material more evidential, thereby facilitating the process of transforming the knowledge acquired into convictions.
3. On an emotional level, it creates a feeling of content and confidence in one’s own strength;
4. The independent “discovery of scientific truths” and the methodological regularities related to this process are more difficult to forget and are subject to a far quicker recovery if they get lost in the volume of temporary memory [6].
The connection between problem-based training and the main principles of constructivist educational paradigm can be expressed with the aid of the following types of problem-based training:
1. Theoretical research — it consists in the process of students seeking and finding new rules, laws and norms, which are underpinned by the formulation to solve theoretical learning problems.
2. Practical creativity — as a whole it involves seeking a practical solution on the basis of applying familiar knowledge to a new situation; construction and demonstration of innovative thinking. This type of problemacity is underpinned by the requirement to solve practical learning problems.
The interpretation of problem-based training can be furthered by the following ascertainments. What has to be understood by problem-based training is such study of the learning information, substantive in nature, which is capable of evoking in students’ minds cognitive training tasks and problems resembling scientific search. In a similar context, problem-based training as a creative process can be viewed as a peculiar method of solving non-standard scientific and learning tasks on the basis of using non-standard methods [11].
In the process of training, the systematic creation of problem situations and solving problems on the part of students are a major way of developing their cognitive independence and creative abilities so that that they form skills not only to master new knowledge from various sources, but also to apply knowledge to non-standard conditions.
In order to create a problem situation for students, such a practical task must be set that they should find the new knowledge and actions to be acquired so as to complete the task.
The problem task suggested to students must correspond to the level of development of their intellectual abilities.
The problem task must precede the learning material that is to be acquired.
One and the same problem situation can be presented via various types of tasks.
An interesting period in the development of the educational paradigm oftraining, problematic in character, is associated with Herbert Simon’s activity — he is a
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professor at Carnegie University (Carnegie Mellon University at present) in Pittsburgh. Together with A. Newel, he created a “paradigm for symbolic information processing", which is based on the hypothesis that human thinking is shaped most adequately and consistently in the process of algorithmised operation with some symbols, directly related to the material reality surrounding the modern person [15].
Within the educational and methodological limits of realisation ofa problem situation, it is usually necessary to set and solve the following in-stage tasks: what the main purpose of a learning task with problem invariant is, what factors and circumstances impede the achievement of the educational aim set, what is necessary in order to remove the impediment hindering the process of planning the problem strategy which is to be solved.
Regardless of the possible subject area of application of the strategy for solving problem tasks (problem situations), it must be kept in mind that in essence every task like this is simultaneously a learning task with an exploratory condition.
There are some basic stages related to the formulation and solution to a problem task within the exploratory limits of interpretation:
1. The existence of the situation and its analysis prior to the beginning of looking for effective solutions — when such a possible solution is potentially not known. If in the process of methodological formulation of the tasks (viewed in the broad sense of the word), the way to its solution (the exploratory algorithm) and the necessary means are known to the student developing the problem conception, to whom only the effort to accomplish this solution is left, then such a task could be termed “narrow” as regards its complementary exploratory variants.
2. If at the moment when the task formulation is being realised, its solution is not known, we can talk about the presence of a problem situation [13].
Didactic technologies are a main pedagogical reference point, where the mechanism of training is not the memorisation of knowledge but the management of academic activities. G. A. Atanasov [1] presents it in the following way:
A mechanism to implement the activity is problemsolving, and if this is not done, no learning activity takes place.
The content of training is not the system of knowledge itself or the subsequent assimilation of this knowledge, but the set system of actions and knowledge which ensures the assimilation of this system.
Cognition — it does not only mean the memorisation of certain knowledge, but also necessarily the performance of certain activity associated with this knowledge. It is only through operating with knowledge that its assimilation can be achieved.
The planning of learning activity needs to begin not with formulation of the system of knowledge, but also with a psychological analysis of the future activity. At the basis of training as a whole is set the task to form skills and methods of action, necessary in order to make rational behavioural decisions.
E. G. Demyanova introduced the “problem lessons” concept very convincingly as particularly characteristic of the realisation of school subjects belonging to the following content cycle: Economics, History, Geography. According to her, the presence of a problem situation must initially be grounded on the availability of 3 aspects she considers basic, when planning and methodologically managing a problem situation (the problemacity of a lesson).
1. A substantive moment (determinator-descriptor) is the requirement, in this part of the lesson (introductory), for a clearly formulated problem question (questions) to be available. A key feature of the question of problematic nature is the “arousing of interest”. The problem question may involve the interpretation of knowledge in a problematic direction, it having a pronounced interdisciplinary character.
2. After the problem has already been formulated (within the bounds of the interpretation field of the problem subject question), the next step is to implement a specific problem strategy, connected with its solving. This is possible on the basis of realisation of the methodological requirement to formulate and defend a working hypothesis (which is viewed as a classic formulation in terms of context).
3. The movement of the solution to a problem situation (objectivised) with the help of a problem question, formulated at the beginning, can be presented within the limits of the following temporal model: ... fact ... hypothesis ... theory ... knowledge (truth) ...
4. The forms that the realisation of problemacity can take within the bounds of various didactic methods may include the following:
On the basis of discussion activities:
a) seminars (individual work);
b) structured discussions (group work);
c) problem-practical discussions (collective work).
On the basis of exploratory activities:
a) practical lessons (collective work);
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b) exploratory lessons (individual work [4].
According to A. M. Matyushkin, based on the thus displayed methodological platform of grounds for the development of the concept “problemacity”, viewed complexly (problem, problem situation, problem task, problem lesson, problem method), and there being a comparatively permanent educational paradigm, components of active work (active learning) are formed by students, manifested in the following way: ability to formulate the problem independently; development of working hypotheses; discovery or invention of methods for their verification in terms of their methodological conformity with the problem thesis; an analysis of the data is collected; conclusions are formulated; orientation of the typal solutions to the main problem question towards private methodology in order to achieve an optimal solution and systematisation [8, 44].
The extent of active adaptation of students as regards the choice of individual style of learning also determines the effectiveness of the design (construction) of an optimal problem strategy of management of students’ actions.
The concept “adaptation” (deriving from Latin “adapto” — adaptation) means the adaptation of organisms to external conditions. In modern science, this concept is analysed within very broad limits. An individual, according to A. S. Petrovski, possesses — at the beginning of his/her socialisation — a striving to reach a significant intrinsic objective, in accordance with which he/she carries into effect all manifestations of personal activity. This intrinsic objective is revealed by the term “adaptive orientation” (adaptivity) of all psychological processes and behavioural acts. Here belong the processes of an individual’s adaptation to nature and social environment, the processes of selfadaptation (self-regulation, subjection of low interests to superior ones). Depending on the interpretation of the purpose of life and social activity of an individual, the following variants of possible orientation of adaptation (adaptivity) can be formulated [17, 34].
1) Homeostatic variant — the adaptive outcome consists in the extent of balance achievemant;
2) Hedonistic variant — the adaptive outcome consists in pleasure and avoidance of suffering;
3) Pragmatic variant — the adaptive outcome consists in practical benefit, satisfaction and success.
The concept “adaptation” (adaptatio) has a Latin origin. Literally it means adjustment, adaptation. Adaptation is a specific kind of adjustment, which has a different content when it comes to tangible-object and
social environment. With tangible-object environment, adaptation is a one-sided process. In a social environment, adaptation is a two-sided process for the object that adapts itself is also a subject of adaptation. In sociology, adaptation is viewed as an element of the activity of people, whose function is the assimilation of relatively stable environmental conditions, as well as a solution to the recurring typical problems through accepted ways of social behaviour and acting. Adaptation is a controversial process. Controversy comes from its duplicity. When it comes to adaptation, controversy exists not only between sides, but within them. The controversial nature of adaptation shows that it is accompanied by disadaptation, i. e. its opposite. This makes it possible to determine the extent of reversibility of the adaptation process, as well as the intensity of fulfilment and the stages of development.
There are different ideas about adaptation in literary sources. According to one of them, they are three.
The first stage is initial. Within its bounds, the basic motives of adaptational change are formulated.
The second stage is associated with improving one’s qualifications and mastering a profession, as well as the establishment of sustainable social contacts.
The third stage is reached when professional mastery, recognition and respect on the part of colleagues and superiors take place. The first stage lasts for one year, the second one — for three, and the third one — for more than three years.
According to another assumption, the process of adaptation goes through two stages — incomplete and complete adaptation. According to yet a third assumption, the stages of adaptation are four: initial adaptation, acceptable adaptation, high adaptation and leadership. In our opinion, the stages of adaptation are: initial stage, a stage oftolerance, a stage ofaccommodation (adjustment) and a stage of assimilation.
The adaptation which is achieved when the individual starts a job in an economic organisation for the fist time is considered primary. When it comes to stages, it is this adaptation that is meant. Secondary adaptation is the result of changes that occur in a working environment. Secondary adaptation accompanies the individual throughout his or her whole working life. Scientific and technical, economic and social progress increase its im portance [2].
If we have to analyse the manifestation of the personality trait “adaptation” (adaptivity), this concept remains in the realm of culture theory as regards its basic interpretations. For instance, the representatives
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of the evolutionary trend in social culture (L. White,
L. Vaida, R. Rapoport, M. Harris, etc.) view culture as a concrete adaptive space or system, necessary to a person for his or her gradual socialisation. In this space, all existing sub-systems, called “vectors" by him, must accommodate to each other (co-adapt) for the achievement of a certain balance and equilibrium.
The adaptive sociocultural environment is perceived as an instrument for self-development and preservation ofpeople’s social life. The idea about the functional nature of adaptive environment in the works of E. S. Markaryan makes allowances for the fact that the “adaptive function of culture immediately, logically follows from the very definition of culture, as a method of human activity, considering the fact that the very phenomenon of activity has an initial adaptive orientation" The American culturologist and philosopher U. Bakley is one of the first to try to explain the belonging of human society to the “specific class of highly developed adaptive systems" According to him, the characteristic feature of people’s adaptive activity consists in the fact that with its help the process of adaptation of the system to the natural environment is possible, through nature’s response to the needs ofthe system. The positive side of such an approach to the understanding of the nature of social adaptation in society consists in the fact that it enables the studying of adaptive processes in the socium to take place regularly, the euristic potential of the activity and the culturological and system approach blending into one [10].
The system approach raises a key question when studying the process of development of adaptive systems, which is based on the idea of how all processes, phenomena, objects, structures and relations can possess the status of determining components of a certain structure. It follows from here that any vast variety of definitions of the concept “system” can be taken as a basis for the definition of L. Von Bertalanffy (in his logical and classic interpretation): “A system — this is a complex of interacting elements.” On the basis ofthe methodology of the system approach, we must take into account the fact that an adaptive system always belongs to the class of discovered, self-ruling, hierarchical, organised systems, basing their activity on the direct and reverse link principle. Every complex, self-ruling system is adaptive. Adaptivity is a peculiar attributive property, a functional sign of complex self-ruling systems.
The technical and educational-technical system belongs to the class of these systems, which as a classic self-ruling system possesses the following features of functional nature:
a) it has a holistic character; b) relative stability in terms of functioning; c) an ambiguous relationship with the external environment; d) availability of active depiction of technical processes and phenomena; e) a planned and purposeful process of self-ruling; f) active development of the separate internal sub-structures.
In my opinion, adaptive processes in the socium are based on the idea that with every stable, relevant interaction of information between the social system and the surrounding environment (material and technical), the processes of adaptation are impossible, since the adequate situations of informational interaction with the environment (social, technological, play, innovative, productional) appear to be the most important and dynamic quality for the existence of every single active system, including the adaptive one.
Following this logic, every adaptive system in a field of application like education must involve a minimum of two systems: the one that adapts itself and another which this adaptation refers to [12, p.13].
The following systems, which are in the process of adaptation, can analytically be differentiated:
— adaptive system — a system based on the use of informational mechanism for feedback with the aim of transforming its structure according to the needs;
— adapted system — a system which has already achieved adaptation and is currently in a state of relative adaptivity (rest);
— adaptational — it is a microsystem through which adaptation of the macrosystem is achieved.
Besides, as far as the object of our analysis is mainly the adaptation of individuals in social systems, it is appropriate to take into account P. S. Grave’s opinion, who claims that within the bounds of adaptation, social in nature, “it could be considered a process of adaptability (as a property or quality of the living), of adaptivity” [3, p.67].
Education, problematic in nature, is oriented to the realisation of a clearly defined group of educational priorities associated with the availability of a problem situation (problem moment, problem question, problem strategy) and the necessity for a student to reveal his/her cognitive and applied potential (as a series of exploratory actions), related to the interpretation of a category of learning information. An essential moment in this context is to clarify the importance of a “learning style” (as a personal and group expression) within the limits of the thus constructed educational paradigm.
The degree of active adaptation of students regarding the choice of an individual learning style also determines
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the effectiveness of the design (construction) of an optimal problem strategy of management of students’ actions.
Ivan Ivanov remarks that the changes which occur with “the modification of educational environment” have led to definite personification (orientation to satisfying individual differences in class) of the learning style after the 1970s [5, p.9-10].
The latter is related to the so-called “learning-centred approach”. This approach has three main characteristics: a strong interest in individual differences on the part of educators; the development of new constructs and theories about learning style, and the creation of new research tools for this purpose [18, p.4].
The open focus of problem-based training upon the three types of popular methods, which have grouped around the odd acronym AL — active learning, through their integration into one dynamic interactive structure, involves: project-based learning, problem-based learning, experiential learning and inquiry-based instruction. This allows us to draw the conclusion that the educational paradigm in Bulgaria, as regards problem-based training, has been clarified thoroughly, both in terms of its strict methodological boundaries (within the content field of individual school subjects) and in terms of didactic provision based on a constructed, balanced spatial-temporal model of implementation.
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1. Atanov, G.A. Active Approach in Teaching. Donetsk, 2001. Quote by Mariana Todorova. Formation of Skills for Rational Solutions to Situations. Scientific Works of Ruse University. 2010, volume 49, series 6.2.
2. Batsalska, R. Adaptation of Personnel. Electronic resource.
3. http://www.referati.org/adaptaciq-na-personala/33117/ref.
4. Grave, P.S. Social Adaptation of the Individual. M., Prosveshtenie. 2010. p. 67.
5. Demyanova, E.G. Seminar “Methodology of Problem Classes”. Electronic resource. http://festival.1september. ru/articles/583913/.
6. Ivanov, I. Styles of Cognition and Learning. Theories. Diagnostics. Ethnic and Gender Variations in Bulgaria. Shumen. 2004, p. 9-10.
7. Sitarov, V.A. Problem-Based Learning as One of the Trends of Modern Learning Technologies. Electronic resource. http://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/problemnoe-obuchenie-kak-odno-iz-napravleniy-sovremennyh-tehnologiy-obucheniya
8. Krutetski, V.A. Pedagogical Psychology Basics. - M., 1972. p. 186.
9. Matyushkin, A. M. Topical Problems of High School Psychology. M., 1977. p. 44.
10. Mahmutov, M.I.. Problem-Based Training: Basic Questions of Theory. - M., 1975. p. 265.
11. National Sociological Encyclopedia. http://voluntary.ru/dictionary/903/word/adaptacija.
12. Problem-Based Training. Electronic resource. http://txtb.ru/88/36.html
13. Dictionary of Psychology. M., 1997. p. 13.
14. Problem Situation. Electronic resource. http://www.inventech.ru/lib/glossary/problemsit/
15. Radev, P. General School Didactics. “Paisii Hilendarski” University Press. Plovdiv, 2005. p.276.
16. Simon, G. Solution Theory in Economics and the Science of Behaviour. - Book: Theory of the Firm. SPb, 1995.
17. A quote on Problem-Based Learning. Electronic resource.
18. http://www.p-lib.ru/pedagogika/sitarov_didaktika/sitarov_didaktika52.html
19. Dictionary of Philosophy, Anutina.Piter-Press.2000. p. 34.
20. Rayner, Stephen, Riding, Richard. Cognitive Style and School Refusal.//Educational Psychology, Dec96, Vol. 16, Is. 4.
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