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37Ledovskaya Olga, Ustinova Taisiya*
Development of cultural relations between Japan and Turkey
Abstract: This article deals with the basic steps and forms of cultural interaction between Japan and Turkey. Diplomatic relations between them have gone through particular historical periods characterized by way of development and revitalization, stagnation and the recovery. An important tool for promoting the development of Japanese-Turkish cooperation was "cultural diplomacy" of Japan. The main directions of cultural diplomacy include dissemination of information about Japan, about traditional and modern culture, measures to promote the Japanese language, organizing scientific exchanges as well as cooperation with international organizations in the field of culture. Keywords: Japanese-Turkish relations, strategic partnership, cultural diplomacy, "soft power".
Diplomatic Relations
Modern diplomatic relations between Japan and Turkey were installed in August 1924, when Japan recognized the Republic of Turkey. During the following year Japan first, and then Turkey opened Embassies in their countries. However, 20 years later, in January 1945 Turkey broke off its relations with Japan, and in February of the same year declared war on Japan and Germany. After the end of the Second World war Turkey reopened its Embassy in Japan in 1952 and a year later Japan opened its Embassy in Turkey. In 1965 the Consulate of Japan in Istanbul was opened, which acquired the status of General Consulate in 1972. The evolution of Japanese-Turkish relations has been marked by periods of intensification, stagnation and the recovery. Each of them was characterized by its own specific features of domestic and international situation as well as by the factors that determine the overall situation in the world. Since the establishment of diplomatic relations between Japan and Turkey after the signing of the bilateral Treaty of Lausanne in 1923 the parties have shown the desire to develop mutually beneficial relationships and contacts that objectively were required in accordance with the interests of both countries.
Despite this, the development of bilateral relations has been very slow and uneven and as a result, over the past decade, relations between the two countries in the economic, political and cultural fields have not reached the level which in full would be consistent with the importance of each of these countries, their potential and their position in the world. Political relations between the two countries noticeably lagged behind economic, that both sides sought to change. At the end of the 20th century Japanese-Turkish relations entered a new stage of cooperation. Both states with the end of bipolar confrontation have searched
* Olga Ledovskaya - Ph.d.(History), a fellow researcher at the Center for Studies of Common Problems of Modern East IOS RAS
Taisiya Ustinova - a fellow researcher at the Center for Studies of Common Problems of Modern East IOS RAS
for the way to strengthen their role on the international scene. The increase in the number of visits on high and the highest levels between the two countries testified to the upgrading of Turkey among Japanese foreign partners.
Turkey was interested in expanding its influence and sought to stabilize relations not only with its neighbours, but also with distant foreign countries, including Japan. Strengthening of the Japanese-Turkish cooperation was backed by the United States though Japanese-American political-military alliance remained the cornerstone of Japan's foreign policy. Nevertheless, it is clear that, in addition to the geopolitical interests of the United States, there was an objective requirement for the two countries to develop bilateral relations. As noted by Japanese researcher A. Higashino, "It remains unchanged that the core of Japanese foreign policy is the US-Japan alliance, but partnerships with other countries have also been actively sought for years in order to widen the scope and potential of Japan's foreign policy. In this context, Turkey has frequently been mentioned as one of the most promising candidates for such a partnership, especially considering its deep knowledge of and expertise in the workings of the Middle East and Central Asia"1.
It should be noted that most actively the relations between the two countries began to develop after the year 1980, when mutual visits of official and influential persons of the two states intensified. Contacts in the field of economy and culture expanded. This was due to the visit to Japan of the Prime Minister of Turkey, T. Ozal in 1985, and the visit to Turkey in the 1983 of the Foreign Minister of Japan S. Abe. In this connection, we should also mention visits to Turkey of members of the imperial family in 1988. Mutual visits at the level of Foreign Ministers, representatives of business circles particularly intensified in the 90s of the twentieth century.
Some experts point out that "the fact of the small number of bilateral treaties and agreements between the two countries suggests that the texts of formal agreements were developed and designed in such a way that they maximize to regulate effectively the relations between the two countries and diplomatic circles of both countries obtain responsible attitude towards instruments for governing and supporting the relationship between countries"2.
In order to strengthen the interaction between the two countries the plan for mutual cooperation was developed and adopted in April 2000 under the name "the Japanese-Turkish Joint Action Plan". In accordance with it Japan and Turkey in 21-st century intend to develop and diversify their activities in the political, economic and cultural spheres within the framework of political consultations between the Foreign Ministers of the two countries.
Positive changes in bilateral political relations were furthered by increased number of high-level visits over the last years. In May, 2013. during the visit of the Prime Minister of Japan Sh. Abe to Turkey "A Joint Declaration on
1 http://foreignpolicynews.org/2014/11/18/turkey-japan-relations-images-reality/
2 http://globkazan.narod.ru/2003/a10.htm
The Establishment Of Strategic Partnership Between Japan and the Republic of Turkey" was signed, thus "upgrading the level of cooperation to mutually beneficial strategic partnership to promote common interests of both countries through bilateral and multilateral cooperation"3. The main aim of the Declaration was to inject a new quality of bilateral cooperation in political, economic, scientific, technical, cultural, humanitarian, etc. areas.
Cultural diplomacy as an instrument of "soft power,"
Japan is a country which has rejected the use of military force in resolving international disputes because of constitutional restrictions as well as using economic sanctions and relies on "soft power", which includes traditional and contemporary culture, business, innovation, and some other aspects. An important instrument for projecting "soft power" is cultural and public diplomacy. In Japan, these two concepts are closely related. In the Foreign Ministry's documents they are marked as "a public cultural diplomacy" (coho bunka gaiko). According to Prof. Kondo, the Japanese, by their nature, tend to represent their own system of values, which is a resource of "soft power", rather indirectly, through artistic expression or creativity than directly in the form of words and ideas4. Therefore, cultural diplomacy is of special importance for the understanding the policy of "soft power" of Japan.
The main directions of cultural diplomacy include dissemination of information about Japan, its traditional and modern culture, as well as arrangements for promotion of the Japanese language, organizing educational and scientific exchanges and cooperation with international organizations in the field of culture.
"A Century of Friendship between Japan and Turkey"
The cultural interaction between Japan and Turkey as a whole can be divided into projects at the governmental level, and non-governmental projects that are realized by public organizations. Typically, major cultural events were timed to coincide with visits of officials and politicians of the two countries. In particular, in 1988, during the visit of the Prince and the Princess Mikasa in Turkey there was held "a week of Japanese culture" in Ankara, which included15 events. This visit served as the beginning of annual various cultural programs in Turkey in order to familiarize residents with the culture and traditions of Japan. In the presence of the Turkish President S. Demirel, and the Prince and the Princess Mikasa Tomahito there was opened the cultural center of the Turkish-Japanese Foundation in Ankara, which became not only a base for cultural exchanges, but also contributed to a variety of exchange programs between the two countries in other areas of cooperation. In this connection, it should be noted that since 1980 various activities and cultural events both in Japan and Turkey were initiated and the "century of friendship" was declared between the two countries.
3 www.mofa.go.jp/files/00004160.pdf4
4 S. Kondo. Wielding soft power: the key stages of transmission and reception. //Soft power superpowers. Cultural and national assets of Japan and the United States. New York. 2008. P. 194.
In 1985 Turkey organized in Tsukava an international exhibition, in the same year an exhibition dedicated to the development of civilization in Turkey was held in Japan. In 1988 the treasures of Turkish Palace Tolkapi were demonstrated in many cities of Japan.
Regarding the export of Japanese culture, it is important to highligt the role of the Japan Foundation, which has been responsible for the promotion of international cultural exchanges of Japan since 1972. In 2003 the Foundation obtained the status of administrative organization, independent from the Japanese Foreign Ministry, while 82% budget of which falls on state subsidies from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs5. In May 1998 the Turkish-Japanese cultural center, headed by a Turkish Professor T. Sadiktar was opened in Ankara. The opening ceremony was attended by the then Turkish President S. Demirel and the Japanese Prince Tomohito. The cultural center regularly hosts various cultural events. At the same time the center operates as a platform for various kinds of bilateral exchange.
In 2003 Japan hosted the "Year of Turkey" in the frame of which more than 100 events: exhibitions, concerts, folkloric performances were held in different Japanese cities. In 2010, Turkey hosted the "Year of Japan" under the slogan "Turkey and Japan are closer than ever." Among more than 189 major events in the cities Izmir, Mersin, Ankara, Safranbolu, Kaman, etc. we should mention "the week of Japanese films", demonstration of Japanese kimonos and concerts of Japanese drummers. According to both parties, these events demonstrated the need for the development of cultural co-operation and exchange of delegations at different levels in order to strengthen the strategic partnership6.
2014 and 2015 years were marked by two memorable dates in Turkish-Japanese relations, which were commemorated in both countries: in 2014- 90 years since the establishment of diplomatic relations between Japan and Turkey, in 2015 - 125th anniversary of the tragic disaster of the Ertugrul Frigate. In 1890 Ottoman Sultan Abdulhamid II send a medal with the Frigate commanded by Osman Pasha to be delivered to the Japanese Emperor Mikado. On its return trip the Ertugrul Frigate, carrying the Turkish delegation on board, crashed during a storm and sank off the coast of Japan. More than 600 sailors died, but just 69 of them were rescued by the local Japanese and were taken to their homeland by Japanese ships. According to a statement from the former Prime Minister of Turkey A. Davutoglu, "This historical fact is very valuable for Turkey and reflects the sincerity of relations between our nations7. " In this regard, in 2013 there was reached an agreement between the two countries on the shooting of a joint film about the tragedy and the friendship between Turkey and Japan after the event. In December 2015 the joint film "Shipwreck 1890" («Ertugrul-1890" in Turkish, "Kainan - 1890" in Japanese), which was directed by M. Tanaka, was released in the two countries and successfully
5 2013-2014 Preparatory Action 'Culture in the EU's External Relations'. Japan Country Report. http://ec.europa. eu/culture/policy/international-cooperation/documents/country-reports/japan_en.pdf
6 Joint Declaration on the Establishment of Strategic Partnership between Japan and the Republic of Turkey
7 Anadolu Post. 25.12.2015.
screened in 309 cinemas in Japan and in 300 cinemas in Turkey. In January 2004 the NHK broadcast a documentary program ('Project-X') which explained how the Turkish government and Turkish Airlines helped Japanese nationals to leave Iran in the middle of the 1985 Iran-Iraq war. The then-government in Turkey made an extraordinary decision to send a Turkish Airlines aircraft to Tehran in order to help evacuate 215 Japanese residents who were at risk due to severe air strikes being held by Iraq while the Japanese government failed to make a prompt decision on sending an aircraft to save the Japanese and bring them home. Thus it was an act " to give back to Japan", as described it A. Davutoglu8. This caused a huge response in Japan, fortifying an image of Turkey as one of Japan's most reliable friends. Eventually, in 2006, then-Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi even ordered the decoration of 11 members of the Turkish Airlines staff who were involved in the rescue operation at that time. Another significant example of the rooted relationship can be seen in a children's book that was published in 2003. This novel, based on the tragedy of the Ertugrul Frigate disaster in 1890, described how the frigate from the Ottoman Empire, which sank off the coast of Kushimoto, served as the basis of a deep friendship between Turkey and Japan. This book also touched upon the above-mentioned rescue operation during the Iran-Iraq war, emphasizing the kindness and loyalty of the Turkish people. In the following year, the book was recommended for fifth and sixth grade elementary school pupils who had to write book reviews for a nation-wide annual writing competition. Taking into account the popularity of this writing competition, a large number of Japanese pupils are estimated to have read the book. In this regard A. Higashino points out that " While this disaster was already quite well-known amongst adults in Japan, the impact of this publication was still significant, as the history of the friendly relationship between the two countries was widely learnt by the younger generations of Japan thanks to this book"9.
Thus, it can be concluded that cultural diplomacy undoubtedly played a key role in the rapprochement between Japan and Turkey to improve mutual understanding, to maintain emotional closeness, particularly given sensitive for both countries historical events.
This includes a great layer of Japanese traditional culture as well as an active promotion of contemporary youth culture. According to the Japanese researcher E. Ishikawa, "Japanese pop culture, which is currently winning the whole world, is also very attractive to the Turkish people"10.
According to the Russian researcher S. V. Chugrov, "Japan successfully exploits the image of a" special and unmatched country, wrapped in the veil of mystery and unique appeal. Amazing landscapes, spectacular fiestas, fascinating traditions - all this became sort of a hallmark of Japanese "soft power", attracting
8 Ibid.
9 http://foreignpolicynews.org/2014/11/18/turkey-japan-relations-images-reality/
10 A New Dimension in Japanese Public Diplomacy. www.tokyofoundation.org/en/articles/2008/a-new-dimension-in-japanese-public-diplomacy
foreigners to study Japanese language and culture"11. Turkey regularly holds events devoted to Japan, not only in the capital but in other cities of Turkey.
Educational programs
The Japanese Government pays special attention to educational programmes aimed at both young people and professionals. It is now believed that any progressive country, which wants to keep pace with the time, should worry about globalization of their education, as well as the international mobility of students. In May, 2014 an agreement was reached between Japan and Turkey on establishing a Joint Science and Technology University in Istanbul where students get training in Turkish and Japanese languages, basics of the cultural heritage of both countries. At the same time inter-university communication is developing. For example, Japanese Hosjej, Waseda universities, etc. are implementing a program of student's exchanges with leading educational institutions in Turkey.
An important element of this work is promotion of the Japanese language. The first Japanese language courses in Turkey opened in 1976, with the assistance of the Istanbul Office of the Turkish-Japanese women's Association. And only 10 years after this at the university level first Japanese language programs were adopted in 1986 at the Faculty of letters of the University of Ankara, and then spread to other universities in the country. The implementation of some language programs goes on through the Japanese Embassy in Ankara, as well as through the Japan-Turkish Cultural Center of the Japanese Foundation which was established pursuant to the agreement between the Government of Turkey and the Japanese Agency for International Cooperation (JICA). The main activities of the Centre include business courses, Japanese language courses, training, facilitating information and cultural exchange. The Centre plays an important role in disseminating of the Japanese language along with faculties at universities of Ankara, Canakkale and others, where students study Japanese language and literature. Turkey is accounted for the largest number of the Japanese language learners in the Middle East. The fact that Turkish and Japanese languages have many similarities in grammatical syntax plays an important role and greatly facilitates learning the Japanese language by Turkish citizens. Many Japanese researchers have noted the need to increase Japanese investment in education in Turkey because "this will lead to effective expansion of the Japanese" soft power"12.
Great interest in the two countries triggered the Turkish-Japanese Symposium on Sufism in Turkey at the University of Uskudar in October, 2016 hence launching a new project on cultural exchange between the two countries named "The Bridge of Two Easts: Sufi Culture Education Program Project". As its organizers pointed out " the demonstration of the two countries ' positions with respect to terrorism
11 S.V.Chugrov."Myagkaya Sila" Yaponii: Kitaiskoe Napravlrnie // Yaponiya v Poiskah Novoi Globalnoi Roli., M.2014, P. 141.
12 A New Dimension in Japanese Public Diplomacy. www.tokyofoundation.org/en/articles/2008/a-new-dimension-in-japanese-public-diplomacy
has nothing to do with religion, and Islamophobia is groundless."13 The aim of this project was to enhance cultural and academic collaboration by gathering available academic and research facilities of Turkey and Japan. This project will improve academic and cultural collaboration through the bridge to be established between the two countries by the possible Sufi studies. Uskudar University, Institute for Sufi Studies offered an educational program on Sufi Culture to graduate students from Japan. It takes 6 weeks and offers 180 hours of theoretical lessons. Ten PhD students from Kyoto University and other relevant Japanese Universities attend the program which offers courses on Ottoman Turkish and Paleography and introduces manuscript collections in Turkey14. Sufi thought, Islamic philosophy and its primary sources, especially Turkish Sufi texts from the Ottoman period, are analysed. This project makes it possible for young researchers attending the program to get to know this society and culture rather than engage with the matter in a merely academic, literature-centered manner.
Understanding Sufi themes in popular culture as fields of study provides significant clues for establishing cultural relations. The studies to be carried out may contribute to Japanese scholars giving more emphasis to Sufi themes in their research. Japan is a representative of a very important academic tradition. It is highly expected that in the long run, young generation researchers' prospective studies on Human and Social Studies will create a positive impact on both countries' perspectives on society and contribute to the improvement of public diplomacy. Turkish and Japanese researchers may also benefit from the project in that they may develop potentially new interests for their future studies.
For over 30 years, Japanese archaeologists are carrying out excavations in Turkey in the area of Kaman-Kalehojuk by participation in the project on the creation of the archaeological museum. Background of this project is as follows. In 1979 the Middle East Culture Center in Japan (BKCJa) was founded in the town of Mitaka, near Tokyo by the Japanese Prince Mikasa. And in 1998 the Japanese Institute of Archaeology of Anatolia in Turkey was opened as a branch of the BKCJa. The Institute is located in a small Turkish village of Chegyrkan in the area of Kaman. Its location is not without reason - not far from this village there is a hillfort Kaman-Kalehojuk which is basically being studied by the Institute. Since 1985 BKCJa has begun the systematic study of this settlement. The Prince Takahito Mikasa was the first to dig the clod of earth in the settlement thus marking the beginning of the excavations that continue unabated to this day. The composition of the Japanese Institute of Anatolian archaeology besides the park includes the hillfort Kaman-Kalehojuk and the Archaeological Museum, the construction of which was completed in 2008 with the assistance of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan.
Over the last decade, Japan has accumulated a considerable potential of cultural diplomacy in Turkey. The popularity of Japanese culture and sports,
13 https://senseisekai.livejournal.com/5306496.html
14 https://www.dailysabah.com/life/2016/10/25/turkey-japan-to-join-hands-for-sufism-project-1477334042
the success of the cultural center, active humanitarian exchanges demonstrate the interest of the Turkish people to Japan as a technologically advanced country, a leader in solving some global problems, a model for economic development. If we consider the Japanese cultural diplomacy in the long term, and, bearing in mind that it is supported by factors of mutual interest, the conclusion can be drawn about its effectiveness. According to a statement by the former Prime Minister of Turkey A. Davutoglu, " There is no economical conflict of interests between the two countries and there is a complementary [relationship] between them. Whatever Japan has is an asset for Turkey and whatever Turkey has is an asset for Japan. "15 According to the public survey in Turkey conducted by the Japanese Foreign Ministry in 2012, 83.2% of respondents answered that the relations between Japan and Turkey are "friendly" or "almost friendly16. This is contributed by promoting mutual tourism, exchange of television programs between different channels through the Japan Foundation and the Turkish Radio and Television Corporation. An increasing proportion of private initiatives in activities such as exhibitions, seminars, mutual contacts. In 2006 there was established the society of Japanese -Turkish dialogue which fosters cultural and other exchanges between the two countries. Both countries have cooperated in the field of preservation of the cultural heritage under UNESCO programs. Private contacts of individual citizens of both countries are succeeding. According to Dr. E. Arioglu, the Chairman of the company Yapi Merkezi, " To me these are the building blocks of a new, durable and growing bilateral cooperation between Japan and Turkey. Such a relationship will be a very positive contribution to civilization, peace and security in Asia, in Eurasia and beyond. We should always work for these objectives which include the basic ingredients of a relationship from people to people, from nation to nation. It also explains why Japan-Turkey relations are totally free of any distressing issues."17
Consequently, we can conclude that in the implementation of Japan's foreign policy strategy with regard to Turkey a special role is given to the development of cultural relations between the two countries, both permanent and most efficient component of communication between nations.
15 Japan' First Priority on New government 's Agenda// Interview with Turkish PM. Nikkei Asian Review 13.11.2015.
16 Japan-Turkey Relations (Basic Data)// www.mofa.go.jp/middle_e/turkey/2016.
17 http://www.arioglu.net/bildiriler/brief%20thoughtsonamovingjapanturkeyrelations
