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Journal of Stress Physiology & Biochemistry, Vol. 17, No. 4, 2021, pp. 30-45 ISSN 1997-0838 Original Text Copyright © 2021 by Hesam Shahrajabian, Sun and Cheng
REVIEW
Bioactive Components and Chemical Constituents of Some Important Legumes in Traditional Medicine
MOHAMAD HESAM SHAHRAJABIAN1**, WENLI SUN1*,
and QI CHENG12
1 Biotechnology Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100081, China;
2 College of Life Sciences, Hebei Agricultural University, Baoding, Hebei, 071000, China; Global Alliance of HeBAU-CLS&HeQiS for BioAl-Manufacturing, Baoding, Hebei 071000, China.
Corresponding Author: Hesamshahrajabian@gmail.com
#These authors equally contributed to this paper
ORCID
Dr. Mohamad Hesam Shahrajabian 0000-0002-8638-1312
Dr. Wenli Sun 0000-0002-1705-2996
Prof. Dr. Qi Cheng 0000-0003-1269-6386
*E-Mail: hesamshahrajabian@gmail.com: sunwenli@caas.cn
Received May 26, 2021
Legumes in traditional medicine play a key role in the world. In majority of countries, especially in Iran and China, western and traditional medicine has been practiced side by side of each other. The aim of this study is to review bioactive components and chemical constituents of some important legumes in East of Asia. All relevant papers in English language of researchers and scholars from various countries gathered. The soybean itself is composed of approximately 40% protein, 20% oil, 35% carbohydrates, and 5% trace minerals and other compounds. The most important functional components of soy are a-Linolenic acid, isoflavones, lecithins, lectins, linoleic acid, peptides, phytosterols, protein and saponin. Peanuts are considered an important source of oil, folate, antioxidants, protein, and essential fatty acids (linoleic), and it ranked fourth in oilseed crops in the world after soybeans, rapeseed, and cotton. Peanuts are considered an important source of oil, folate, antioxidants, protein, and essential fatty acids (linoleic), and it ranked fourth in oilseed crops in the world after soybeans, rapeseed, and cotton. It has been revealed the presence of flavonoids, tannins, terpenoids, saponins, steroids, alkaloids by positive reaction with the respective test reagent. Cow peas are valuable source of protein, carbohydrate, mineral and vitamins, and it also contain biologically active components including phenols, phytic acid, saponin, oligosaccharides, fiber and etc. Nutrition therapy according to traditional Asian medicine by considering tremendous benefits of legumes is quite effective at not only treating common diseases, but also its prevention.
Key words: Soybean; Peanuts; Cowpea; Bioactive Components; Legume; Traditional Medicine
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Legumes are indispensable for human diet in respect to their valuable and nutritive bioactive molecules (Soleymani et al., 2011a,b,c; Soleymani and Shahrajabian, 2012; Soleymani et al., 2012a,b; Yong et al., 2018). Among the species of medicinal plants, some are mainly confined to folk medicine and some are used as occasional or local substitutes for the main species listed in the Materia Medica (Soleymani and Shahajabian, 2018; Sun et al., 2019a,b; Shahrajabian et al., 2019a,b,c; Shahrajabian et al., 2021a,b,c,d). Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) has a history of thousands of years it is formed by summarizing the precious experience of understanding life, maintaining health, and fighting diseases accumulated in daily life, production and medical practice (Ogbaji et al., 2013; Ogbaji et al., 2018; Shahrajabian et al., 2019d,e,f,g,h,I; Sun et al., 2021a,b,c). Soybean has been one of the most important sources of vegetable-sourced proteins (Ziegler et al., 2016). The soybean (Glycine Max. (L.) Merrill) is a leguminous which has been originated from China and has been cultivated for more than five thousand years and it has been considered as a stable food in many countries of East of Asia. Soybean are suggested to have many health benefits such as the healthy functioning of bowels, heart, kidney, liver, lowering of serum cholesterol levels and reduction in the risk for coronary heart disease (CHD), reduction in the risk for breast cancer, and osteoporosis in women, and alleviation of the disturbances caused by menopause (Oyvind et al., 2006) [23]. Peanuts or groundnuts as they are known in some parts of the world are the edible seeds of a legume. Commercially, it is used mainly for oil production but apart from oil, the by-products of peanut contains many other functional compounds like proteins, fibers, polyphenols, antioxidants, vitamins and minerals which can be added as a functional ingredient into many processed foods (Arya et al., 2016; Chukwumah et al., 2007; Wu et al., 2015; Zahran and Tawfeuk, 2019). Cow pea is commonly cultivated as a nutritious and highly palatable food source in Asia, the Middle East, the USA and throughout the tropics and subtropics. It can be used as forage, hay, and silage (Wu et al., 2015).
SOYBEAN
Sitohy and Osman (2018) reported glycinin, basic subunit, and p-conglycinin isolated from soybean protein. Their results suggest that a soy protein fraction containing mainly p-conglycinin can be used as an effective environmentally friendly fungicidal agent against postharvest fungal infections. Isanga and Zhang (2008) in their research has implicated soybean phytochemicals as functioning in cholesterol reduction, cardiovascular disease prevention, diabetic symptoms prevention, bone loss prevention, and cancer prevention. However, some bioactive compounds in soybean are reported to have some adverse effects to health. Soybeans have various bioactive compounds such as saponins, protease inhibitors, phytic acid, and isoflavones (Setchell et al., 2003). The most important isoflavones in soy is genisteinl; and others are composed by daidzein and glycitein, and the metabolism of isoflavones is different from that of parent compounds (Markiewicz et al., 1993). Soy isoflavones have weak estrogens, and they can function as agonists, partial agonists, or antagonists to endogenous estrogens and xenoestrogens at estrogen receptors (Tikkanen et al., 1998; Ishii and Tanizawa, 2006). Filho et al. (2014) stated that the conversion of isoflavone was influenced directly by the characteristics of each sample, inhibiting or promoting the action of the enzyme. Silva and Perrone (2018) concluded that soybean meals presented 43% higher protein content, from 29% to 101% higher bioactive compounds contents and 52% higher antioxidant capacity than soybeans. High moisture thermal procedure employed during soybean meal processing led to a 13-fold increase in aglycone isoflavones contents, which could affect the bioavailability of isoflavones in the residue. They have concluded that dry soybean meal extracts are suitable materials for performing long-term in vivo studies, as these extracts were stable when stored at room temperature unprotected from light for 180 days. Vernaza et al. (2012) reported that consumption of soybean has been linked to cholesterol reduction and prevention of cardiovascular and gastrointestinal diseases, cancer, diabetes and obesity. They have found that the health benefits of soy are attributed to the
Hesam Shahrajabian et al. 32
presence of bioactive compounds such as isoflavones, isoflavones are the most abundant phytoestrogen in
saponins, lunasin and others. Lokuruka (2011) soybeans which are structurally similar with 17 p-
concluded that many of the chemical reactions affecting estradiol. The antioxidant property of genistein and
amino acid residues are often accompanied by protein- daidzein are well established in different experimental
protein interactions involving formation of covalent and clinical models. Isoflavones compounds have been
bonds, which may reduce their bioavailability. Excessive found effective in the management of diabetes. It
thermal denaturation and heat-induced interactions may reduces low-density lipoprotein and triglycerides and
from mutagenic and toxic compounds. Hydrogenation hence minimizes the risk of coronary heart disease. Soy
results in the formation of the hypercholesterolemic isoflavones was found useful for treatment of
trans fatty acids isomers implying potential loss of the osteoporosis by inhibiting tyrosine kinase. In soy
unsaturated essential fatty acids. He concluded isoflavones, genistein is effective in the treatment of
processing can cause changes in the sensory appeal cancer by acting on androgen receptor and inhbiting
and the nutritive value of soybeans and soy products, tyrosine kinases. Many nutraceuitical and medicinal
and to minimize the adverse changes, minimal washing, uses and applications of soy isoflavones have been
fermentation and thermal processing below 100oC for investigated such as treatment and prevention of
short periods are suggested, although the higher cardiovascular diseases, cholesterol lowering,
temperatures used during soy oil hydrogenation will osteoporosis, diabetes, cancer, cognitive decline, and
unavoidably introduce health-related adverse changes. menopausal symptoms. Content of vitamin E, total
Martino et al. (2019) found that a 50% substitution of phenols and isoflavone of whole soybean flour is
casein with soybean protein reduced lipid peroxidation presented in Table 1. Comparison of levels of some
and liver fat, and improved intestinal morphology, while bioactive compounds (%) from different saponified
a 100% substitution reduced cholesterol and triglyceride deodorizer distillate sources is shown in Table 2.
levels; therefore, whole soybean, a source of vitamin E Composition of unsaponified deodorizer distillates (%)
and isoflavone, is a functional food, which has cardio- obtained from chemical or physical refining of different
protective effects and reduces cardiovascular disease soft oils is presented in Table 3. Various soybean
risk associated with oxidative stress. Chatterjee et al. fermented foods and their processing is presented in
(2018) showed that some soy peptides like lunasin and Table 4. Fatty acid composition of soybean oil (SO) and
soy morphins possess more than one of the properties fully hydrogenated soybean oil is shown in Table 5.
and play a role in the prevention of multiple chronic Sterols profile of the bioactive compounds loaded in the
diseases. Meghwal and Sahu (2015) revealed that lipid nanoparticles is presented in Table 6.
Table 1. Content of vitamin E, total phenols, and isoflavone of whole soybean flour (Martino et al., 2019).
Phytochemical Amount
Vitamin E (mg/100 g) 3.84
a-tocopherol 0.42
y-tocopherol 2.53
¿-tocopherol 0.89
Total phenols (mg de EAG/100g) 60
Isoflavones (mg/g) 1,566.81
Daidzein 658.23
Genistein 753.34
Glicitein 155.25
Table 2. Comparison of levels of some bioactive compounds (%) from different saponified deodorizer distillate sources
(Winter, 1990).
Bioactive compounds Deodorizer Distillates
Sunflower Cotton Soybean Rapeseed
Unsaponifiables matter 39.0 42.0 33.0 35.0
Tocopherols 9.30 11.40 11.10 8.20
a-Tocopherols 5.70 6.30 0.90 1.40
Sterols 18.0 20.0 18.0 14.60
Stigmasterol 2.90 0.30 4.40 1.80
Mean values of replicate samples.
Table 3. Composition of unsaponified deodorizer distillates (%) obtained from chemical or physical refining of different _soft oils (Verleyn et al., 2001; Dumont and Narine, 2007)._
Bioactive Soybean Corn Sunflower Sunflower Rapeseed Rapeseed
compounds
Chemical Physical Physical Chemical Physical Chemical
5-Tocopherol 4.4-5.6 2.0 0.1 n.d.* n.d. 0.2-0.3
P-Tocopherol 0.4-0.5 n.d. 0.1 n.d. n.d. 0.1-0.2
y-Tocopherol 10.7-11.3 5.0 1.1-2.8 0.3 0.1 2.3-2.5
a-Tocopherol 0.8 0.5 0.2-0.4 4.8 1.2 0.9-1.4
Total Tocopherols 16.3-18.2 7.5 1.5-3.4 5.1 1.3 3.5-4.4
Brassicasterol n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. 1.6-2.8
Campesterol 5.1-5.7 1.9 0.8-1.7 1.6 0.5 2.9-4.4
Stigmasterol 4.1-4.8 1.4 0.2-0.4 2.0 0.6 n.d.
P-Sitosterol 7.9-8.3 3.0 1.7-3.4 8.6 2.6 4.1-6.2
Other sterols** n.d. n.d. n.d. 1.7 0.6 n.d.
Steryl esters 2.3-2.6 4.5 0.6 0.3 0.1 1.4-5.3
Total sterols 19.4-21.4 10.8 3.3-6.1 14.2 4.4 10.0-18.7
Mono-acylglycerols 1.2-1.9 1.9 0.1 0.9 n.d. 1.4-2.1
Diacylglycerols 2.7-3.8 8.1 0.5-1.3 1.9 0.7 3.8-3.9
Triacylglycerols 5.1-5.9 3.8 0.1-0.8 2.6 2.7 3.0-7.5
FFA (as C18:1) 33 73.8 1 -8 7. 7 9.2 70.8 39-42
Squalene 1.3-2.1 0.6 0.2-1.0 0.7 1.0 0.1-0.4
n.d.*, Not detected
**A5 avenasterol, A7 avenasterol and A5 stigmasterol
Table 4. Various soybean fermented foods and their processing (Varnosfaderani et al., 2019).
Name
Definition and Production
Doenjang Doenjang is a representative traditional Korean fermented food that has played an important
role in providing protein in typically graincentered, protein-scarce diets. It is prepared by fermented soybean paste.
Sufu Sufu is a traditional and highly flavored fermented tofu. Its preparation consists of a former
fermentation by inoculation of tofu with Actinomucor elegans and incubation for 48 h to produce pehtze (pizi). Fermentation is usually performed between 20o C and 35o C.
Miso Miso is commonly produced from koji. Soybean koji can be prepared by soaking soybeans in
water and mixing with the conidia of A. oryzae or A. sojae and incubated at room temperature.
Natto Natto is a B. subtilis fermented soybean. Its preparation consists of splitting, soaking, and
boiling of soybeans, followed by fermentation with B. subtilis at 37o C for 48 h.
Tempeh Tempeh is produced by soaking soybeans at room temperature for 10-12 h and dehulling them
by hand. They are heated up to the boiling point and boiled for 20 min. After colling to 35-40oC, and inoculums of R. oligosporus for incubation in the dark at 37o C for 22 h.
Douchi Douchi is prepared by soaking soybeans in water for 8 h at room temperature; after raining,
soybeans are cooked (>100oC) and then inoculated either with Mucor, Bacteria, or Aspergillus strains at 30-35oC (pre-fermentation)
Tofuyo Tofuyo is a traditional fermented tofu from Okinawa in Japan.
Chunggugjang_Chunggugjang is a traditional fermented Korean soybean product._
Aspergillus= A, B. subtilis= Bacillus subtilis, R. oligosporus= Rhizopus oligosporus
Table 5. Fatty acid composition of soybean oil (SO) and fully hydrogenated soybean oil (FHSO) (Santos et al., 2019).
Fatty acids (%) SOa FHSOa
C16:0- Palmitic acid 10.70 ± 1.12 11.22 ± 0.50
C16:1- Palmitoleic acid 0.09 ± 0.02 -
C18:0- Stearic acid 4.26 ± 0.26 87.11 ± 0.06
C18:1- Oleic acid 23.38 ± 0.96 -
C18:2- Linoleic acid 53.32 ± 0.58 -
C18:3- Linolenic acid 6.66 ± 0.10 -
C20:0- Arachidonic acid 0.41 ± 0.03 0.60 ± 0.18
C22:0- Behenic acid - 0.75 ± 0.28
I Saturated 15.83 100
I Unsaturated 83.45 <1
a Average of three replicates ± Standard Deviation. Values 0.2% were omitted from the table.
Table 6. Sterols profile of the bioactive compounds loaded in the lipid nanoparticles (Santos et al., 2019).
Composition of free phytosterols (%)a
Cholesterol 0.60 ± 0.02
Brassicasterol 0.30 ± 0.01
Campesterol 23.56 ± 0.23
Campestanol 0.66 ± 0.11
Stigmasterol 26.77 ± 0.22
Д-7-Campesterol 0.78 ± 0.04
A-5,23-Stigmastadienol 0.48 ± 0.01
^-Sitosterol 44.05 ± 0.15
Sitostanol 1.18 ± 0.08
Д-5-Avenasterol 0.84 ± 0.04
A-5-24-Stigmastadienol 0.14 ± 0.01
Д-Stigmastenol 0.47 ± 0.02
Д-7-Avenasterol 0.68 ± 0.01
Total of phytosterols 98.00
a Average of three replicates ± Standard Deviation
Kunitz-Trypsin inhibitor (KTI), Bowman-Birk inhibitor (BBI), and lunasin are three major and best characterized bioactive proteins/peptides of soybean seeds (Park et al., 2005). KTI and BBI are serine protease inhibitors with molecular weights of 20.1 and 8 kDa, respectively [47]. Both of these proteins have been shown to exhibit anti-carcinogenic and/or anti-invasive metastatic activities (Isanga and Zhang, 2007; Dia et al., 2012). Two essential fatty acid (EFAs) present in soy oil is presented in Figure 1. Functional components of soy and their impact is shown in Table 7. Soy phytosterols and their structural similarity with cholesterol are presented in Figure 2. Duenas et al. (2012) observed that fermentation process caused significant changes in the phenolic composition of soybean seeds, and
therefore, it could also affect the beneficial biological effects associated with these components. These changes could be due to enzymes production and activation by the microbiota used in order to perform the fermentation process, brining out complex biochemical metabolism of soybean during the process. In general, the fermentation process produced a significant increase in the levels of the phenolic acids and flavonoids, mainly aglycones isoflavones. The chemical structure and types of soy sapnins is shown in Figure 3. Bioactive peptide production from legume sources as anticancer agents is shown in Figure 4. Structure of genistein, daidzein and glycitein is shown in Figure 5. Structure of glyceollins is presented in Figure 6.
Fig. 1. Two essential fatty acid (EFAs) present in soy oil (Dixit et al., 2011). Table 7. Functional components of soy and their impact (Sugano, 2006).
a-Linolenic acid Isoflavones
Lecithins Lectins Linoleic acid
Peptides Phytosterols Protein Saponin
Essential fatty acid, hyptriglyceridemic, improves heart health Estrogenic, hypocholesterolemic, improves digestive tract function, prevents breast, prostate, and colon cancer, bone health, improve lipid metabolism Improve lipid metabolism, improve memory and learning abilities Anti-carcinogenic, immunostimulator Essential fatty acid, hypocholesterolemic Readily absorbed, reduce body fat, anticancer Hypocholesterolemic, improves prostate cancer Hypocholesterolemic, antiatherogenic, reduces body fat _Regulates lipid metabolism, antioxidant_
HO'
P-sitosterol
Campesterol
HO'
Stigmasterol Cholesterol
Fig. 2. Soy phytosterols and their structural similarity with cholesterol (Dixit ef a/., 2011).
HOOC
OHOH
ri r2
Group a saponin OH Disaccharide
Group B saponin H OH
Group e saponin H =0
DDMP saponin H Maltol
Fig. 3. The chemical structure and types of soy saponins (Dixit et al., 2011).
Fig. 4. Bioactive peptide production from legume sources as anticancer agents (Marcela et al., 2017).
Genistein Daidzein
Fig. 5. Structure of genistein, daidzein and glycitein (Wu et al., 2017).
Giyceolisn I
Fig. 6. Structure of glyceollins (Wu et al., 2017).
Giyceoliin II
Giyceoliin III
PEANUTS
Peanut is one of the most widely used legumes due to its nutrition and taste, and it has been recognized recently as a functional food (Francisco and Resurreccion, 2008). The peanut industry s byproducts such as peanut hulls and shells, skins, and even leaves and roots have also been identified as possible sources of bioactive compounds (Bhat et al., 2019). Peanuts are also a source of helpful biologically active components found in plant foods, such as phytochemicals. Some of the phytochemicals in peanuts include flavonoids and phenolic compounds. This article discusses bioactive compounds and nutraceuticals in peanuts that could be used in prevention and management of illnesses such as cancer, cardiovascular disease, osteoporosis, and other degenerative diseases. The biological activity of anti-nutritional factors in peanuts is also briefly discussed (Isanga and Zhang, 2007). The most important bioactive compounds in s a hell of peanut is 1) arginine: an amino acid with high levels in peanuts, is a precursor to nitric oxide, which helps expand blood vessels and decrease blood pressure, 2) Resveratrol: also found in grapes and wine, improves longevity and performance and reduces inflammation, 3) Phytosterols: are well-known for their ability to reduce cholesterol levels and research shows they have cancer-preventing qualities, 4) Phenolic acids: are found in plants and act
as a defense mechanism for environmental stress and pest attacks. They may also defend our bodies and keep the bodies healthy, 5) Flavonoids: are the class of compounds found in peanuts that reduce inflammation and inhibit platelets from sticking to arteries. Bhat et al. (2019) reported that peanut consists of different functional components such as coenzyme Q10 which secures the heart amid absence of oxygen, for example at high altitudes and in case of clogged veins. Also, peanut possess various health benefits beyond basic nutrition. Peanuts act as efficiency source of dietary fiber, and other essential nutrients that include few B complex group of vitamins, vitamin E, minerals such as iron, zinc, potassium, magnesium and antioxidant minerals such as selenium, manganese and copper. The antioxidant activity of peanut is because of vitamin E, caffeic, coumaric acid, flavonoids and stilbenes, and these bioactive compounds possess preventative properties (Yu et al., 2006). Akl et al. (2019) observed that the analysis of soluble and insoluble of peanut meal protein by native and SDS-PAGE showed peptide bands at low molecular weight in range (up to 25 kDa); which were extracted by acid and base treatments. These peptides were easily digested and were recommended as baby, sports people and geriatric food. The soluble extracts showed high contents of phenolic compounds especially that extracted by ethanol: 1N NaOH, and it
also contains appreciable amounts of saponins and flavonoids that exhibited anti-oxidant activities especially DPPH scavenging activities 91% extracted by ethanol: 1N NaOH. The protein extract of 60% ethanol were the most effective on (MCF7) and 100% ethanol were the most effective on (HEPG2). Bioactive compounds in
peanuts are shown in Figure 7. Groundnuts (Arachis hypogae), all types, nutritional value per 100 g is shown in Table 8. Components in nuts that are thought to be beneficial is presented in Table 9. The chemical structure of trans-resveratrol and trans-piceatannol is shown in Figure 8.
Fig. 7. Bioactive compounds in Peanuts (Bhat et al., 2019).
Table 8. Groundnuts (Arachis hypogae), all types, nutritional value per 100 g (Bhat et al., 2019).
Principle Nutrient value Percentage of RDA
Energy 567 Kcal 12
Carbohydrates 16.13g 12
Protein 25.80g 46
Total Fat 49.24g 165
Cholesterol 0 mg 0
Dietary Fiber 8.5 g 22
Vitamins
Folates 240 Mg 60
Niacin 12.066 mg 75
Pantothenic acid 1.767 mg 35
Pyridoxine 0.348 mg 27
Riboflavin 0.135 mg 10
Thiamin 0.640 mg 53
Vitamin A 0 IU 0
Vitamin C 0 0
Vitamin E 8.33 mg 55.5
Electrolytes
Sodium 18 mg 1
Potassium 705 mg 15
Minerals
Calcium 92 mg 9
Copper 1.144 mg 127
Iron 4.58 mg 57
Magnesium 168 mg 42
Manganese 1.934 mg 84
Phosphorus 76 mg 54
Selenium 7.2 Mg 13
Zinc 3.27 mg 30
Source: USDA National Nutrient data base.
Table 9. Components in nuts that are thought to be beneficial (Kris-Etherton et al., 1999).
n-6 and n-3 Monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids Fiber
Micronutrients
Vitamin E
Folic acid
Copper
Magnesium
Plant protein (arginine)
Phytochemicals
Plant sterols
oh h
Fig. 8. The chemical structure of frans-resveratrol and frans-piceatannol (Lin et al., 2007).
Table 10. Phytochemical screening of peel extracts of Arachis hypogeal (Velu et al., 2015).
Secondary metabolites Chloroform Acetone Ethanol Methanol Aqueous
Carbohydrates +++ +++ +++ +++ +++
Tannins - +++ +++ +++ -
Saponins - - +++ +++ -
Flavonoids - +++ +++ +++ +++
Alkaloids - +++ +++ +++ -
Betacyanin - +++ +++ +++ +
Quinones - + +++ + -
Glycosides - ++ +++ +++ -
Cardiac - - - - -
Glycosides
Terpenoids - + + ++ -
Triterpenoids - - - + +
Phenols + +++ +++ + +
Coumarins - +++ +++ +++ +
Acids - + + + -
Protein - - - - +++
Steroids + ++ +++ +++ -
Table 11. Fatty acid composition of the peanut powder extracts with and without skin (Silva and Perrone, 2015).
Fatty acids (mg 100g-1 of lipids) Peanut powder extract peanut powder extract
With skin Without skin
Saturated 8.0000 ± 0.024 8.6203 ± 0.023
Palmitic C16:0 4.3346 ± 0.010 4.4486 ± 0.002
Stearic C18:0 1.2498 ± 0.003 1.2968 ± 0.005
Arachidic C20:0 0.6229 ± 0.002 0.6647 ± 0.005
Beenic C22:0 1.7927 ± 0.009 2.2102 ± 0.011
Monounsaturated 26.0094 ± 0.017 28.6719 ± 0.008
Oleic C18:1 25.3536 ± 0.014 27.9162 ± 0.002
Eicosenoic C20:1 0.6558 ± 0.003 0.7557 ± 0.006
Polyunsaturated 9.0854 ± 0.001 9.1751 ± 0.005
Linoleci C18:2 9.0854 ± 0.001 9.1751 ± 0.005
Note. Values expressed in mean ± standard deviation.
Velu et al. (2015) noted that phytochemical screening of the peel extract of Arachis hypogaea showed the presence of bioactive compounds such as tannins, saponin, flavonoids, alkaloids, glycosides, beta cyanin, coumarins, quinines and steroid. Silva and Perrone (2015) concluded that the bioactive compounds are found in larger amounts in the peanut powder extract with skin. The peanut powder extracts are classified as non-hygroscopic, have poor fluidity, intermediate cohesiveness in samples with skin and high cohesiveness in samples without skin. The peanut powder extracts have significant percentage of minerals like K, P, Mg, and Ca, and they are mainly composed of oleic and linoleic fatty acids. Lewis et al. (2013) showed that peanut skin extracts contain high levels of procyanidins and other phenolic compounds, whether extracted with acetone or ethanol. Despite measureable differences in procyanidin and phenolic content between the two extraction systems studied, both possessed similar antioxidant activity as determined by chemical assays and anti-inflammatory activity in an in vitro model of inflammation. Fatty acid composition of the peanut powder extracts with and without skin in Table 11.
COW PEA
Lee et al. (2011) evaluated anti-inflammatory effects of methanol extract and solvent fractions of cowpea (Vigna sinensis L.) seeds and the isolated compounds. In their experiment, ethyl acetate and n-butanol fractions of VS seeds were found to strongly inhibit nitric oxide (NO) production, and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) mRNA and protein expressions in lipoplysaccharides (LPS)-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophage cells. Among the isolated compounds, Lna and LA were found to inhibit NO production significantly. Contents of LnA and LA in VS seeds were 2.034 and 1.162 mg/g on dry weight basis, respectively. LA suppressed the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as interleukin (IL)-1p, IL-6, and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-a in LPS-induced macrophage cells. Cai et al. (2003) reported that the amount of protocatechuic acid increased from trace -3.6 to 9.3-92.7 mg/100 g of flour in the 17 varieties of cowpeas after hydrolysis. Six other phenolic acids, including, p-hydroxybenzoic acid, caffeic acid, p-coumaric acid,
ferulic acids, 2,4-dimethoxybenzoic acid, and cinnamic acid, were also identified. Cowpea is an important food crop in tropical countries especially in west of Africa where it is a cheap source of dietary protein; the dry seed consists of about 25% protein and 67% carbohydrate, and it is also a good source of calcium, iron, vitamins and carotene. Dalaram (2015) stated that contains phenolic compounds and it is believed that it works synergistically to promote human health through their antioxidant properties and their ability to modulate the activity of various enzymes, and these phenolics are also potent inhibitors of a-amylase and a-glucosidase, the two important enzymes involved in the regulation of glucose homeostasis. Cowpeas are low in fat and high in protein, thus, the legume can prevent cardiovascular and metabolic diseases associated with high fats; furthermore, cowpeas are rich in thiamine, riboflavin, vitamins A and C, niacin, calcium, potassium, magnesium and carbohydrates (Chipurura et al., 2018). The major polyphenols common to all cowpea varieties are phenolic acids derivatives (148-1176 Mg/g), and flavonol glycosides (27-1060 Mg/g). Some varieties also contain anthocyanins (875-3860 Mg/g), and flavan-3-ols (2155-6297 Mg/g). The flava-3-ols (tannins) are dominated by monomers, mostly catechin-7-O-glucoside. Cowpea also contains beneficial bioactive peptides. Sombie et al. (2018) noticed that cowpea genotypes with colored seed coast showed the highest phenolic content, ferric reduction ability and anti-lipid peroxidation activities. In their experiment, it has been found that nitric oxide scavenging potential was found not be related to its total phenolic and total flavonoids content. 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) and hydroxyl radicals scavenging potentials were not correlated with the total flavooids content. Compound detected in the extracts of flours, porridge and digested porridge (Mg/g) is shown in Figure 9. Traditional Chinese herbs and medicines play vital role in sustainable agriculture and food systems (Adelakun and Duodu, 2017; Khoshkharam et al., 2020; Shahrajabian et al., 2020a,b,c,d,e; Shen et al., 2020; Sun et al., 2020a,b,c).
CONCLUSION
Pulses make a major share of the human diet in many regions of the world and play a significant role in
the human nutrition, especially as source of protein, vitamins, minerals, dietary fiber and folic acid. Grain pulses also contain certain biologically active components including enzyme inhibitors, lectins, phytates, oligosaccharides, and phenolic compounds. Soybean comprises isoflavones, phytosterols, saponins, and other basic nutritive constituents, such as lipids, vitamins, minerals, oligosaccharides, and biological active peptides, that are of strong therapeutic values. The soybean itself is composed of approximately 40% protein, 20% oil, 35% carbohydrates, and 5% trace minerals and other compounds. Soy protein isolates and concentrates have been used to develop a range of food products including beverages and meat alternatives and they can be processed to function similarly to the traditional sources of protein in meat and dairy products. The most important health benefits of soybean are bioactive components include protect heart health, anticancer, reduce the effects of menopause, promotes bone health, improve metabolism, and decrease the risk of diabetes. Peanut (Arachis hypogaea Linn.) belongs to the family of Rosales and is widely cultivated around the world as an important economical crop. Peanuts are considered an important source of oil, folate, antioxidants, protein, and essential fatty acids (linoleic), and it ranked fourth in oilseed crops in the world after soybeans, rapeseed, and cotton. It has been revealed the presence of flavonoids, tannins, terpenoids, saponins, steroids, alkaloids by positive reaction with the respective test reagent. The numerous bioactive components in peanut contribute to their antioxidant capacity. Cowpeas are legumes recognized as a good source of proteins in many countries especially developing countries. It contains high levels of polyphenols, and the major polyphenols commons to all cowpea varieties are phenolic acids derivatives, and flavonol glycosides. Some varieties also contain anthocyanins and flavan-3-ols. Cow peas are valuable source of protein, carbohydrate, mineral and vitamins, and it also contain biologically active components including phenols, phytic acid, saponin, oligosaccharides, fiber and etc. Growing of leguminous plants can also benefits both the plants and soils by yielding nitrogen in the compound form. Legumes in traditional Medicine are natural and organic health care
system which views the body as a complex network of interconnected parts. The most important health benefits of legumes are improve metabolic activity, health weight gain, anti-cancer potential, boost heart health, relieve menopausal symptoms, boost digestion, improve bone health, prevent birth defects, improve circulation, control diabetes and relieve sleep disorders.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This work was supported by the National Key R&D Program of China (Research grant 2019YFA0904700)
CONFLICTS OF INTEREST
The authors declare that they have no potential conflicts of interest.
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