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92ARMENIAN COMMUNITY IN JERUSALEM AND PALESTINE IN THE PERIOD OF WORLD WAR I AND THE GENOCIDE
Dmitry Sanoyan
The Armenian Genocide in the Ottoman Empire in 1915 laid foundation for the long range of genocide crimes and “ethnic cleansings” all over the world, which overshadowed the 20th century. At the beginning of the 1910s Armenians lived in their motherland – Armenia (the Armenian Highland and Armenian Cilicia), as well as in other spaces of Western Asia Minor and the Middle Eastern shore of the Mediterranean to Tbilisi and Northern Caucuses, from Black Sea shore to Baku. Before World War I most of the Armenians (more than 4 million people) lived compactly on the territory of Armenia, about 1.5 million of which lived in Eastern Armenia (in the Russian Empire), and the rest in Western Armenia, Armenian Cilicia as well as in the other regions of the Ottoman Empire [1].
The Genocide (the liquidation and deportation of the Armenians in 1878-1923 were started in the Ottoman Empire, continued by the Young Turks and finished by Kemalists)1, which reached its tragic culmination in 1915 (1.5 million Armenians were killed), caused the violation of the natural development of the historical process of the life of the Armenian people. The tragic consequences of the Genocide, which was carried out in Western Armenia, Armenian Cilicia and other places of residence of the Armenians (in Asia Minor and the Middle East) in the last decades of the Ottoman Empire fall, still affect Armeniancy (in their motherland and in the Diaspora).
In the period of the Armenian Genocide in the Ottoman Empire the headquarters of the 8th corps of the 7th army under the command of the governor of Palestine, one of the criminal leaders of the Young Turks Ahmed Jamal-Pasha, who was appointed in November 1914 the commander of the 4th army, which acted on Syrian-Palestine front, was placed in Jerusalem. In the period of his military and administrative rule in Syria, near the city of Deir-el-Zor in 1915 on the order of the Young Turk leaders Armenians who were deported from Western Armenia and other districts of the Ottoman Empire were killed.
1 About 2 million Armenians were killed, about 800 thousand people were deported [2, 3].
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The telegram (August 24, 1915) by the ambassador of Germany Gogendoe to the consul in Jerusalem and the latter’s answer witness to the policy of genocide of the Young Turks. The telegram of the ambassador and the answer of the consul stated that Jemal Pasha with the knowledge of Tallat Bey ordered Aleppo Vilaet to deport Protestant Armenians [4]. This was one of the many crimes committed by the leaders of the Young Turks. Jemal Pasha was killed in Tbilisi in 1922 by Armenian avengers Petros Ter-Pogosyan and Artashes Gevorgyan within the framework of the “Nemezis” operation, which aim was to destroy the criminals guilty in the Armenian Genocide.
Jemal Pasha was hostile to any display of liberty expectancy by the indigenous peoples of the countries, which were under the yoke of the Ottoman Empire. While he was in Syria and Palestine, the excrescence of the Arab national movement, which took place in 1910th, caused a special concern. One of the leaders of the Arab national movement in Palestine was the mufti of Gaza, who made public speeches and proclamations to the country. At the end of 1916 the mufti was sentenced to be hanged by the Turks. This was by far not a solitary one case of the reprisals, which were initiated by the Young Turks and particularly by A. Jemal Pasha, over their “potential” political opponents. In that period, some other activists of the Arab national movement were victimized by the government of the Young Turks.
The political repressions carried out by the Young Turks influenced the demographic situation in the country. Back in 1915 the mass withdrawal of the population from the towns on the sea (Haifa, Jaffa, Gaza and etc) and Jerusalem began. Many Arabs migrated from the Palestine to the border areas. Almost all of them passed to the English side, under the banner of Thomas Edward Lawrence (Lawrence of Arabia, 1888-1935), who gathered under his command by January of 1916 more than 15 thousand Arab partisans and leaded them against the Turkish Army.
World War I negatively reflected on the Jewish sector of Jerusalem and Palestine. At that time the most part of the Jewish community of the country were people who were the citizens and the nationals of the states, with which Ottoman Empire was formally (and de facto) in the state of war. This cannot but have impact on the relation of the Ottoman authorities towards the Jewish community in Palestine. The social and economic conditions worsened as well. The life of the Jews in Jerusalem and Palestine was getting more terrible and unbearable day by day. There was no more beneficence from the abroad. In 1915 the cholera epidemic and famine broke out. More than 10 thousand Jews appeared in the Egyptian refugee camps. The other adversity, which came upon the Yishuvs (Hebrew: literally “populated place”,
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“population”, “settlement” – the collective name of the Jewish population in Palestine) in that period, was the famine, which caused many deaths. The representatives of some political groups and organizations of Yishuvs were reprised by the Ottoman authorities.
In 1918 in New-York the book by the future prime-minister of Israel David Ben-Gurion (1886-1973) and future second president of Israel Yitzhak Ben-Zvi (1884-1963) “Eretz Israel in the past and present” was published. According to the facts, presented by the authors, in 1915 the total population of Palestine was 1.079.204 from which 759.659 lived in its western part and 319.545 in the eastern part. But in the revised edition of that book, which was published after the death of the authors, in 1980 the editors presented the other number of the population in the western part of Palestine (within the borders of British mandate) – 650 thousand people [5, стр. 146].
In the middle of 1914 there were about 85 thousand Jews in Palestine, and the half of them (about 45 thousand) lived in Jerusalem. The overall majority of Jews lived in the towns and only about 12 thousand in the agricultural settlements. The World War I stopped the growth and the development of Yishuv. By the end of the war the number of Jews had sunk on 30 thousand people.
What caused such a drastic sank of the Jewish population in Palestine during World War I? Firstly, many left the country during the war. The nationals of the countries, which were in the state of war with Turkey, were either exiled or left the country at their own wish, and the national of the Ottoman Empire left the country to avoid the service in the Turkish army. Secondly, the mortality rate was rather high. The natural disasters, epidemics, diseases, famine, as well as the military actions took many lives.
In the years of war the Jewish part of the population carried many sufferings because the effects of war were more noticeable in the towns than in the villages. As it was mentioned above most of the Jews (85%) lived in the towns and only a small part of them lived in the agricultural settlements [5, стр. 147]. Moreover, the Jewish population was in economic dependence from other countries where the sources of financial support and production export markets were. From the very beginning of the war the connections between Palestine and European countries were interrupted and the routs of foreign trade were blocked.
The longer the war continued the worse the situation of Jewish community was getting. The support of American Jewry was cut at the beginning of 1916 and after the US entered the war in the spring in 1917 that support stopped. Because of
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the danger of conquest of the country by the British, who at the beginning of 1917 captured Rafiakh, the Ottoman authorities deported the citizens of Tel-Aviv and Yaffo to the northern part of the country. Only a small group of young people stayed there to watch the houses and the property, protecting it from the robbers and marauders. A part of the citizens returned just after the military entry of General Al-lenby to Palestine at the end of 1917, but most of the population returned only in 1918. At the end of 1917 the Ottoman authorities, while trying to capture the members of NILI, initiated a new wave of victimization of the Jews.
In the period observed the Armenian community in Jerusalem, which was mainly concentrated in the district of Old Jerusalem, as well as other ethnic groups of Palestine, was victimized by the Turkish authorities. The Armenians, who worked in the municipal administration of Jerusalem, were removed from their posts. Because of the British danger, which came from Egypt, the Turks suspected the representatives of the national minorities – Jews, Arabs, Greeks, Armenians – of collaboration. The expulsion of young draftees of non-Turkish descent and their expedition to different districts of the Ottoman Empire for hard labour, was initiated. Its consequences are known from many evidences and photos, which proved the massacre on the areas of hard labour. Some of those who could avoid the service in Turkish army managed to escape.
In the period of World War I the Young Turks’ authorities tried to neutralize the influence of Catholicos of All Armenians (residence in Etchmiadzin, Eastern Armenian, which was a part of the Russian Empire) on the western Armenians and to create catholicate-patriarchate of the Armenian Apostolic Church with its centre in Jerusalem. New catholicos-patriarch had to represent the Armenian population left in the period of the Genocide (the liquidation of the Armenians in Cilicia continued in 1920 and in the western regions of Turkey in 1919-1922) in some parts of the Ottoman Empire. For this purpose the Young Turks tried to liquidate the patriarchal sees (Cilician catholicate, the patriarchates of Jerusalem and Constantinople, to which in 1895 the dioceses of the former Akhtamar catholicate passed) of the Armenian Apostolic Church and unite them under its power. The higher clergy of the western Armenians share the tragic fate of its people in the period of the Genocide. There were 4 thousand representatives of the Armenian clergy among the victims of the Genocide. Turkish authorities exiled (to Baghdad and then to Mosul) Armenian Patriarch of Constantinople Zaven the Archibishop Ter-Eghiyan. The Armenian Ca-tholicos of Cilicia also shared the same fate: Sahak II Khapayan was firstly sent to Bab (near Aleppo), and then to Jerusalem.
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In 1916 the government of the Young Turks established one catholicate-patriarchate with its see in Jerusalem [6]. The post of the Catholicos-Patriarch was taken by the Catholicos of the Cilician see Sahak Khapayan [7]. It should be mentioned that the merger of the Armenian Patriarchates was neither accepted by the Catholicate of Etchmiadzin nor by most of the dioceses of Northern and Southern Americas and Europe.
Armenians hid their co-patriots who tried to avoid military service in the Ottoman Army, at St. Jacob monastery [8]1, and they sheltered and gave food to those who escaped Turkish massacre More than 4 thousand refugees from different regions of Western Armenia found shelter with the monastery of St. Jacob [9]. American Red Cross moved several thousand Armenian refugees to one of the shabbiest and badly organized parts of the Old Town, the so called “Cotton Market”. The Armenian Patriarch Street and Ararat Street in the Armenian quarter of the Old Town turned in fact into a huge refugee and displaced persons camp.
The stance of the Arab authorities of Jerusalem was also of great importance and contributed to the survival of the Armenian community. Though formally Palestine was governed by the Turkish official, whose residence was in Damascus, in fact, the city was governed by the representative of the Arab aristocracy, including the mayor and its deputies. In 1909-1917 Selim al-Husseini, the representative of one of the three most important Arab families (Husseini, Nashashibi and al-Halidi), which controlled all the external connections and main institutions of the city in 19th century, was the mayor of Jerusalem. The local Armenians who spoke Arabian maintained close contacts with the representatives of Arad aristocracy, who, in their turn, diverted threat from their neighbours.
After the ally’s army under the command of General Edmond Allenby (18611936) had taken the dislocation in environs of Jerusalem, the representatives of Turkish administration began to suspect the leaders of all the Christian and Jewish communities in treachery and the cooperation with the English. In the evening November 24, 1917, Turks gathered the leaders of all the confessional communities of Jerusalem (except Muslim), arrested them, put on the tracks and took them to Damascus as hostages. The Cathalicos-Patriarch Sahak Khapayan was among the arrested persons. That was the end of his short term (15 months) on that post. After the war in 1918 and the setting free the hostages Sahak Khapayan settled in Adana, Armenian Cilicia, and then had lived for a while in Aleppo, Syria.
Having been one of the main theatres of combat activities in the Middle East during the World War I, Palestine suffered heavy losses in 1914-1918. Almost all
1 Jews hid their compatriots in the synagogues of the Jewish quarter, and Arabs — in the Mosque of Omar.
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the Armenian institutions in Jerusalem blasted. It is mentioned that all the Armenian structures in Jerusalem, including patriarchate, brotherhood of St. Jacob, Armenian schools and etc. were destroyed or undermined by the war in the Middle East and the Armenian Genocide in Western Armenia and other parts of the Ottoman Empire [10].
After the Genocide in 1915 the Armenian community in Jerusalem underwent considerable changes both in qualitative and in quantitative aspects. More than 150 thousand Armenians deported from Western Armenia escaped to Syria [11]. According to some data about 140 thousand Armenians reached Palestine. The most part of the Armenian refugees settled in Jerusalem, Amman, Kerak and Maan. There is data that in 1917 Armenian population in Jerusalem was about 20 thousand people. The Armenian Patriarchate took the charge of the refugees from Western Armenia and other regions. Later many Armenian immigrants moved to other countries of the region – Lebanon, Oultrejordain, Egypt and etc.
By 1918, in spite of the heavy destruction inflicted to the Armenian community in Palestine during World War I and the Genocide, Armenian Patriarch had maintained his position in Jerusalem. The Armenian Apostolic Church still remained the third in importance Christian church, which had a right to possess Holy Places (after the Greek Orthodox and the Roman Catholic Churches). It is known that the greater part of the laws, regulating the position of the Armenian Patriarchate in Jerusalem and Armenian community in Jerusalem and in Palestine in general, were set in 1852-1853 by the Ottoman decree, which confirmed the “status-quo” in Holy Places [12] and regulated the right of possession in Holy Places (the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem, The Church of the Nativity in the Bethlehem, Mary's Tomb in Gethsemane garden) granted to three main Christian churches – Armenian, Greek and Latin [13]. At the same time the Armenian Apostolic Church preserved all its land property as well as the property in the Holy Land, because the whole territory of the St. Jacob Monastery where at the given period the 80% of the Armenians of Jerusalem lived, had been the property of the Armenian Patriarchate since 638 (since the times of the Armenian Patriarch Abraham (died in 669).
After the defeat of Turkey in World War I Cilician Catholicosate, the Armenian Patriarchates of Constantinople and Jerusalem survived.
The aftermath of the Armenian Genocide reflected heavily at the church life of the Armenian communities in the Middle East. Armenian theological seminaries at the territory of Turkey were ruined. The role of Constantinople as a kind of source for the new personel for the Armenian clergy in Egypt, Syria, Palestine and other
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countries of the region had almost been nullified.
At the same time the developments in Russia (the participation in World War I on the side of Entente, the comprehensive economic crisis, revolutionary developments in February 1917 and the following collapse of the Russian Empire) influenced the situation in Eastern Armenia.
Before the Armenian Genocide in the Ottoman Empire the majority of the Armenians (more than 2,5 million people) lived in Western Armenia, Armenian Cilicia and in the cities of the Asia Minor, the Middle East, Northern Mesopotamia and the spiritual centre of the Armenians was the city of Etchmiadzin (where the residence of Cathalicos of all Armenians - the head of the Armenian Apostolic Church - is situated up to the present time), which was in Eastern Armenia (the part of the Russian Empire). The Etchmiadzin Cathedral, built in 301, the year of accepting Christianity by the Armenians, is one of the oldest Christian churches in the world. The cathedral has a sacral importance for all Armenians, who belong to Armenian Apostolic Church.
During the centuries Etchmiadzin was an important educational centre. Here was situated one of the largest Armenian seminaries in the world. The events of 1917 had especially reduced the influx of students to Etchmiadzin since 1920th and considerably worsened the conditions of teaching in the seminary. This had bad influence on the number of priests who were being prepared for serving in other countries and St. Etchmiadzin itself appeared in an utmost danger because of atheist atmosphere, which prevailed with the establishment of the Soviet government in Eastern Armenia. Thus, Jerusalem was becoming an important centre of religious education of Armenian Diaspora. Most of the representatives of the clergy of Armenian parishes in the USA and the countries of Northern Europe in 1920th were educated in Jerusalem.
In the considering period Jerusalem was also one of the few cities in the world, where the Armenian historical and religious literature continued to be published. After the Armenian Genocide in 1915 all printing-houses belonging to the Armenian Apostolic Church on the territory of the former Ottoman Empire were closed. At the same time the social-political shocking events, which enveloped the Russian Empire in 1917, reflected on this sphere of Armenian life also (let’s remind that printing-houses that published Armenian religious literature were among the first in Transcaucasia, in general). The appeared vacuum was filled by the Armenian Patriarchy of Jerusalem. At the same time not only the potential of the patriarchy itself and St. Jacob’s brotherhood was used but also the capabilities of many of secular Armenians living in Jerusalem. By the end of the described period Jerusalem had become a large
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(not to say the largest) Armenian religious literature publishing centre. Most of the Armenian prayer books and liturgical books used in the USA and Canada at the end of the 1910s and at the beginning of the 1920s were published in Jerusalem or were the reprints of editions, which had been published there for the first time.
In the period of the Genocide of 1915 the Turk arrested and killed about 800 representatives of Armenian intellectuals. The Armenians who survived in the violence of the Young Turks tried to recover the loss, to revive the basis of Western Armenian culture in Jerusalem. There was an attempt to gather in Jerusalem the Armenian intellectuals who survived in the Genocide.
Since 1914-1918 Armenian Patriarchy in Jerusalem had gone through some hard time. In that period the bishop Babken Gulseryan and archbishop Egishe Duryan, a well-known pedagogue, the Dean of Armash religious seminary (in the same named village in the north-western part of the Asia Minor in Nikomedia region) who later became the Armenian patriarch (1921-1930) of Jerusalem, undertook the idea of a new educational religious establishment, which was named “the class of Gulbenkyan” (after famous Armenian millionaire, oil magnate Galust Gulbenkyan, who was doing charity and took all expenses for the organization of that establishment) [10]. The main aim of “the class of Gulbenkyan” was the preparation of priests for serving in the countries of the Diaspora.
Among the first graduates of “The class” were Simon Manukyan who became later an archbishop and served in the USA, the countries of Southern America, in the Middle East and Echmiadzin; Serob Manukyan who afterwards headed the Western European Diocese of the Armenian Apostolic Church, the centre of which was situated in Paris; Haykazun Abrahamyan, who also became an archbishop later and spent his last years in Etchmiadzin as the great sacristan of the Patriarch of Armenia; Pargev Vardanesyan who became an archbishop and dedicated all his life to the Armenian Church of Jerusalem; Zgon Der-Hakobyan who significantly contributed to the building of new Armenian churches and schools in the USA; Arsi Shirvanyan who headed Californian Diocese of the Armenian Apostolic Church and Shavarsh Kuyumjyan who served afterwards in Damascus [10]. The above mentioned list of names is an apparent evidence of the increased role of Jerusalem in the religious life of the Armenian Diaspora.
It is necessary to say some words about the Armenian legion and it’s participation in military actions on Palestinian front. In the World War I the battalions of the French Foreign Legion, which fought in Palestine, were fully equipped with the Armenians,. The courage and heroism, showed in the course of military actions in the
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Middle East by Armenian soldiers of the Foreign Legion and other military units of allies’ army, influenced the policy of British military authorities in Palestine towards the local Armenian community as well as the following relations of Armenian community of Jerusalem and British mandatory government.
The history of the beginning of the active cooperation of the Europeans and the Armenians dates back to the Middle Ages, particularly, to the history of Crusades.
On October 27, 1916 in London, it was decided to create the Armenian and Arabic (Eastern) legions as a part of the French army for the participation in the military actions on the Syrian - Palestinian front against the Ottoman Empire. The initiator of the creation of the Armenian legion for the fight against the Turks was Pogos Nubar-pashsa (1846-1930), Egyptian inventor, philanthropist and politician of Armenian origin. “According to the agreement with French government the Armenian legion (Eastern legion) had to fight against Turkey only in Cilicia and after the victorious end of the war had to become the core of the army of the future autonomous republic of Cilicia”1.
On November 15, 1916, the order about the reception of the Armenian volunteers under the banners of allies was affected and the first large parties of soldiers were gathered in the places of concentration and pointed garrisons. Among the volunteers were Armenians who had escaped the Genocide in Western Armenia as well as Palestinian Armenians who had escaped the draft into the Turkish army and also the political persecutions and reprisals on the side of the Young Turks’ government. The organizations and clubs, which were under the patronage of Armenian parties “Dashnakcutyun” and “Hnchak” and the branches of which were situated in Jerusalem, were closed.
The draft of the volunteers was kept not only in Europe but also in the USA (New York, Washington, Watertown) and Egypt (Cairo, Alexandria). In Egypt and Cyprus by the end of November 1916 the first three battalions had already been formed and in October 1917 the forth one was formed in Beirut. By that time the Armenian legion had numbered more than five thousand people and acted in different districts and directions of the Middle-Eastern front. The formations, consisting of Greeks, Assyrians and Arab Christians were added to Armenian battalions in the Armenian legion. The liberation of Palestine and, particularly, Jerusalem was an important moral and psychological stimulus for the soldiers of the Armenian legion in the war against the Ottoman Empire. The martial spirit of legion’s soldiers was greatly
1 Look Киликия article on www.genocide.ru web-site
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influenced by the wish for the liberation of their compatriots who were, as a matter of fact, in the condition of “hostages” in Jerusalem.
In 1917 Turkish army was suffering a defeat on the fronts of World War I. The army, which was quartered in Palestine under the command of German officers and generals, tried to carry out a force crossing of the Suez Canal. But after short fights the British managed to force the units of the Turkish army out of the Sinai Peninsula. The defeat of the Turkish expeditionary corps in Sinai became a critical point in the course of the battle on this front of World War I.
At the beginning of the summer 1917 the British general E. Allenby was transferred from France to Egypt and was appointed the commander of the Egyptian expeditionary forces. The shift of forces of the allies’ army started in Egypt. In July 1917 the British initiated an offencive in Palestine starting with the Sinai Peninsula. The fierce battles between British and Turkish armies continued during two months. In October 1917 the army of general E. Allenby invaded Beersheba and entered Gaza at the beginning of November, afterwards Jaffa and Tel-Aviv were invaded.
On October 28, 1917, the subunits of the Armenian legion, which was situated on the Sinai Peninsula, participated in counterattack on the positions of Turkish and German armies in the line of Gaza - Beersheba, after which the enemy had to retire and suffering heavy casualties left some populated areas. In the course of counterattack the many of German and Turkish officers were captured. On October 31, 1917 the Armenian battalions and Arab legion entered the city of Beersheba in the course of the attack which had already been started.
In the mid-November 1917 the Turkish lost the large part of Palestine. Since November 17, 1917, the legionaries had started to advance in the direction of Jerusalem with the view of taking the city. In early December Bethlehem was seized. A threat of besieging of the Turkish garrison in Jerusalem emerged. In this situation the Turkish army headed by German general von Vankelhaim fled from Jerusalem. On December 9, 1917, the subunits of the Armenian legion within the English-French army dislodged the last Turkish garrison from the quarters of the Old city of Jerusalem. On this occasion the most distinguished legionaries were awarded and as a tribute to the memory of the dead soldiers a memorial service was held in the Armenian Church of the Armenian quarter.
This is how the Ottoman Empire’s ruling, which had lasted for four centuries in Jerusalem and Palestine, was over in general. The final blow was inflicted on September 18, 1918. That day a battle took place near the high point Araray (Rafat-Arara), which cleared the result of the whole operation on Palestine front. Without artillery prearrangement the battalion of the Armenian legion managed to break an
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obstinate resistance of the Turkish army’s units with minimal losses and to get the high point, taking care about the positive result of English-French army’s counterattack on this strategically important ground of the front. On the place of the battle a monument was built - the obelisk, for fallen legionaries. On September 17-19, 1918, Armenian legion entered Cilicia ... [14]
Since the British mandate on Jerusalem and later on Palestine, three keepers (Armenian, Greek and Latin churches) of the main Christian Holy Places (the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem, The Church of the Nativity in the Bethlehem, Mary's Tomb in Gethsemane garden) had been adopted as having title to them.
January, 2009.
Reference Sources and Literature
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2. Барсегов ЮГ, Геноцид армян - преступление против человечества (о правомерности термина и юридической квалификации), Ереван, 1990, стр. 4-5, 24.
3. Барсегов Ю, Геноцид армян: ответственность Турции и обязательства мирового сообщества, Документы и комментарии, т.1,, М., 2002, стр. 11.
4. Lepsius J, Deutschland und Armenien 1914-1918. Sammlung diplomatischer Akten-stucke, s. 143, 150.
5. Авива Халамиш, От «национального очага» - к государству, Раанана: Открытый университет Израиля, 2006, том 1, стр. 146.
6. Քրիստոնյա Հայաստան, հանրագիտարան, Երևան, 2002, էջ 338
7. А.Хачатрян, Идеология и деятельность зарубежных армянских церквей, дис.канд. исторических наук, МГУ им. М.В. Ломоносова, 1986.
8. Kevork Hintlian, History of Armenians in the Holy Land, Jerusalem: St. James Press, 1976, p. 201.
9. Hovannisian R, Armenia on the Road to Independence, Berkley: University of California Press, 1967, pp. 19-20.
10. Papazian Dennis R, The Contribution of Armenian Jerusalem to Armenians in America. A paper presented at the 30th Anniversary of Armenian Studies at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem in 1999.
11. Aram Terzian, An Armenian Miscellany, Paris: Samuelian, 1969, p. 18.
12. Մաղաքիա արք. Օրմաեան, Ազգապատում, հ. Գ, Մայր Աթոռ Ս.Էջմիածին, 2001, էջ 4510, 4515:
13. Hagopian A, Armenians in Israel, Jerusalem Center of Public Affairs, July 2, 1986, p. 3.
14. Р.Г.Саакян, Франко-турецкие отношения и Киликия в 1918-1923 гг., Ереван, 1986, стр. 83-84.
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